GIFT  OF 


/ 


Harriet  says  that  a  book,  like  an  orchard,  needs  0 
promising  outlook.     How  will  this  do? 


Fruit  and  Orchard  Gleanings 

From  Bough  to  Basket 

GATHERED  AND  PACKED  INTO  BOOK  FORM 

BY 
JACOB    BIGGLE 


ILLUSTRATED.     J     „ 


*•*•*»»••       J        e  ,  ^   » *«t    '  »      •   ' 

Plant  fruit  trees.      IVho   plants  and  tends  a   tree   hath 
part  in  God"1  s  oivn  work,  and  makes  the 
earth  more  beautiful. " 


PHILADELPHIA 
WILMER    ATKINSON    CO. 


(Vs. 


COPYRIGHT,  1906_ 
COPYRIGHT, fllMBI  If 
WILMER  ATKINSON  Co. 


THIRD  EDITION 
THIRTIETH  THOUSAND 


WII.MER  ATKINSON, 

Editor  of 
My  best-beloved  farm  paper, 

This  little  book 

Is  affectionately  dedicated. 

To  his  kindly  help 

And  counsels, 

The  author  owes 

Much. 


814978 


ILLUSTRATIONS   IN   COLOR. 


(  SPECIAL  NOTE  : 

All  colored  pictures  are  two-  thirds 

natural  size.) 

APPLES. 

Mountain  Rose,  .  Plate  XII. 

Baldwin,    ....  Plate 

V. 

Oldmixon  Free,  •      "      XII. 

Ben  Davis,    .   .   . 

III. 

Salway,   "      XII. 

King,  " 

II. 

Smock  Free,     .   .      "      XVIII. 

Maiden's  Blush, 

X. 

PEARS. 

Northern  Spy,     . 

VIII. 

Oldenburg,   .   .   . 

X. 

Anjou,     .    .       .    .  Plate  XV. 

Rambo,   

II. 

Bartlett,      ....             XIII. 

Rhode  Island 
Greening, 

III. 

Duchess,        .    .    .              XV. 
Flemish  Beauty,       "      XVII. 

Smith's  Cider,     .      " 

I. 

Kieffer,       ....      "      XVII. 

Q            lr     1-1                                          " 

Seckel     ....          "      XIII 

,, 

. 

IX. 

Sheldon,     ....      "      XIII. 

Stayman 
Winesap, 

IV. 

PLUMS. 

Twenty  Ounce,    . 

IV. 

Bradshaw,     -   .      Plate  XIV. 

Yellow  Newtowii 

Burbank,   ....      "      XIV. 

Pippin, 
(or  Albermarle 
Pippin),  .... 

V. 

Coe's  Golden 
Drop,             XX. 
Damson,     ....             XIV. 

York  Imperial,   . 

VIII. 

German  Prune,  .             XX. 

CHERRIES. 

Green  Gage,     .  .      "      XX. 

Kelsey     "      XX 

Black  Tartarian,  Plate 

XI. 

lyombard    ....      "      XX 

Montmorency,    . 

XI. 

Red  June,      ...              XIV. 

Napoleon  

XI. 

Yellow  Egg,     -   .      "      XIV. 

NUTS. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Paragon 
Chestnuts,  Plate 

XVI. 

Effects  of  Pear 
I^eaf  -blight,  .   .  Plate  VII. 

PEACHES. 

San  Jose  on 

Apple,             VII. 

Crawford's  lyate,  Plate 

XIX. 

"      "        Pear,        "      VII. 

Elberta       •       .         " 

XIX. 

XVIII. 

Sprayed  and  ITn- 
snraved    Fruit.       "       VI. 

Globe.  . 

PREFACE. 


The  writing  of  this  little  book  has  surely  been  a 
labor  of  love.  Harriet  and  I  love  trees.  -They  are 
our  pets,  and  we 
think  as  much  of 
them  as  we  do  of  the 
animals  and  birds  on 
the  farm. 

It  had  sometimes 
occurred  to  me  that  a 
need  existed  in  this 
country  for  a  simple, 
practical,  inexpen- 
sive, boiled-down  yet  complete,  printed  talk  on  the 
subject  of  tree  fruits, —  a  talk  that  would  help  the 
amateur  as  well  as  the  more  experienced  orchardist. 
My  publishers  encouraged  the  idea,  saying  that 
requests  for  such  a  treatise  had  often  been  received 
at  their  office  during  the  past  few  years.  Well — to 
make  a  long  story  short — this  book  is  largely  the 
result  of  their  encouragement  and  kindness ;  without 
such  helps  I  very  much  doubt  whether  the  idea  ever 
would  have  materialized  into  clear  type. 

Harriet  has  helped  me,  too — bless  her  heart.  So 
have  Tim  and  Farmer  Vincent.  And  so  have  the 
artists,  designers,  engravers  and  photographers  who 
are  connected  with  the  Wilmer  Atkinson  Co. 

Yes,  and  my  thanks  go  out,  also,  to  the  various 
practical  fruit  men,  government  experts,  and  writers, 
whose    helpful     suggestions,    letters,     pictures    and 
(7) 


8  BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 

bulletins  have  been  of  aid  to  me  in  the  preparation 
of  this  volume.  At  times,  too,  I  have  been  glad  to 
consult  Prof.  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horti- 
culture, Thomas'  American  Fruit  Culturist,  Barry's 
Fruit  Garden,  and  other  standard  reference  books. 
And  I  am  indebted  to  H.  W.  Collingwood,  Editor  of  the 
Rural  New-Yorker,  for  permission  to  reproduce  the 
excellent  dwarf  pear  photo-engraving  in  Chapter  XV; 
and  to  K.  E.  Harriman,  of  the  Pilgrim  Magazine, 
Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  for  his  courtesy  in  allowing  me 
to  use  the  peach-grader  picture  in  Chapter  XIX. 
Occasionally  I  have  used  extracts  from  letters  and 
from  Experiment  Station  or  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture literature,  but,  in  the  main,  this  Orchard  Book 
embodies  my  own  experiences,  observations  and  con- 
clusions— the  result  of  a  lifetime  of  practise  and  study. 
My  friend,  Wilrner  Atkinson,  claims  that  his  paper 
is  "  Unlike  any  other. "  He's  right,  too.  It  is.  And, 
following  a  good  example,  I  have  tried  to  make  this 
book  different  from  any  other.  It  isn't  an  encyclo- 
pedia ;  it  isn't  a  long-winded  two  or  three  dollar 
text-book;  it  isn't  an  incomplete  pamphlet;  it  isn't 
hard  to  understand;  and  it  isn't  a  rehash  of  other 
people's  guesswork.  No.  It's  simply  a  plain  little 
book  that  aims  to  tell  the  inquiring  reader  just  what 
he  or  she  needs  to  know — no  more,  no  less.  I  have 
tried  to  have  all  the  necessary  facts  set  down  and  all 
the  unnecessary  things  left  out.  It's  boiled-down 
' '  essence  of  orchard, ' '  served  with  picture  trimmings, 
and  side  dishes  of  the  finest  colored  plates  ever  put 
into  a  horticultural  book.  I  hope  you  will  like  it,  and 
that  your  orchard  may  prosper  accordingly. 

Elmwood.  JACOB  BIGGLE. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.  Starting  an  Orchard:  Planning     11 

CHAPTER  II.  Seed-Growing,    Grafting    and 

Budding 19 

CHAPTER  III.          Setting  Trees 29 

CHAPTER  IV.  Pruning    and    Early   Care    of 

Newly-Set  Trees 37 

CHAPTER  V.  Later  Pruning 45 

CHAPTER  VI.  Cultivation.     Fertilization. 

Thinning 51 

CHAPTER  VII.         Spraying 59 

CHAPTER  VIII.       Scale  Pests  :  San  Jose,  Oyster- 
Shell,  Scurfy,  etc 67 

CHAPTER  IX.  Cover  Crops.        Fall,    Winter 

and  Spring  Care 75 

CHAPTER  X.  The  Apple 81 

CHAPTER  XL  The  Cherry 91 

CHAPTER  XII.         The  Peach 95 

CHAPTER  XIII.       The  Pear 101 

CHAPTER  XIV.        The  Plum 107 

CHAPTER  XV.         The  Quince  and  Dwarf  Pear   .    Ill 

CHAPTER  XVI.       Nut  Trees 115 

CHAPTER  XVII.      Citrus  and  Other  Fruit  Trees     119 

CHAPTER  XVIII.    Picking  Fruit 123 

CHAPTER  XIX.        Grading  and  Packing    ....    129 
CHAPTER  XX.         Cold  Storage  and  Marketing  .   137 

(9) 


1 


%fe; .  Ij 


CHAPTER  I. 


STARTING  AN  ORCHARD;  jPfc&l 


If  a  man  doesn't  start,  he  will .  neve f*<£e\  any-A>here.\ 

The  first  thing  to  do  about  starting  an  orchard  is 
to  plan  for  it.  Put  on  your  thinking-cap,  study  into 
the  matter,  and  do  not 
jump  in  the  dark.  A 
slow  start  is  much  better 
than  a  poor  start.  Har- 
riet says  that  an  orchard 
set  in  the  right  place, 
at  the  right  time  and  of 
the  right  varieties,  is  PLANNING  THE  ORCHARD 
worth  just  ''eleven  times"  more  than  a  hit-or-miss 
orchard.  (Where  she  secured  the  data  for  such  exact 
figures,  I  do  not  know;  but  I  am  willing  to  admit 
that  she  is  about  right  in  this  statement.) 

To  begin,  suppose  we  consider  the  question  of 
"right  place. "  The  ideal  spot  for  a  proposed  orchard 
is  gently  sloping  and  high.  This  doesn't  mean  that 
it  must  be  on  top  of  a  mountain.  No.  It  means  only 
comparative  height.  The  spot  should  be  somewhat 
higher  than  its  surroundings.  That  is  the  idea.  Then 
when  a  frost  comes — or  a  deluge — it  quickly  runs  off 
on  to  the  lower  lands.  Proper  frost  drainage  is  just 
as  important  as  good  water  drainage.  More  so.  Why  ? 
Because  water  can  be  tiled  away  ;  frost  can  not.  Some 
growers  prefer  a  north  or  some  other  slope ;  but 
(11) 


12  BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 

height  of  land  is  of  more  importance  than  direction  of 
slope. 

Another  thing  to  consider  carefully,  is  the  local 
rlimate  and  eeno'iiia.is  connected  therewith.  For 
instance*.  Befoie 'setting  a  commercial  orchard  of, 
say,  .peach  trees,  Joo^:  around  and  ascertain  whether 
the  natural  local  eonditkfns  are  favorable  to  that  par- 
ticular fruit.  Is  the  locality  a  ' '  peach  section ' '  ?  Are 


ISN'T   SOMETHING   LIKE   THIS  WORTH 
PLANNING  FOR? 

there  successful  peach  orchards  already  established? 
Is  the  average  winter  climate  mild  enough  for  this 
somewhat  tender  fruit?  Does  the  state  experiment 
station  advise  the  planting  of  peaches  in  your  locality? 
Do  near-by  practical  fruit-growers  advise  it?  If  the 
answer  to  each  of  these  questions  is, '  *  No, ' '  the  chances 
are  that  you  will  be  wise  to  change  your  plans  and 
plant  some  other  species  of  fruit, — some  kind  which 
is  exactly  adapted  to  the  locality.  The  same  rule 
holds  good  (to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree)  with  other 
fruits. 


STARTING    AN    ORCHARD:    PLANNING  13 

Other  local  conditions  to  consider,  before  setting 
a  commercial  orchard,  are  transportation,  marketing 
facilities,  and  the  help  problem.  In  some  localities 
it  is  possible  to  employ  transient  help  just  when  most 
needed, — men  for  picking  (for  example),  or  women 
for  packing;  in  other  localities  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  secure  such  temporary  assistance. 

Carefully  study  the  question  of  soil  in  its  relation 
to  the  fruits,  etc.,  to  be  grown.  Some  kinds  of  fruit 
do  best  on  light  soils,  some  do  best  on  heavy  soils. 
The  difference  between  a 
sandy  or  a  clayey  location 
may  mean  the  difference  be- 
tween success  and  failure. 
In  this  book  will  be  found, 
in  the  special  chapter  de- 
voted to  each  kind  of  fruit, 
etc.,  hints  about  the  soil  best 
suited  to  the  species. 

The  foregoing  sugges- 
tions apply  with  most  force, 
of  course,  to  large  orchards 
planted  for  market  purposes.  The  home  orchard  for 
family  use  necessarily  means  an  aggregation  of  various 
kinds  of  trees  probably  all  set  together  on  one  kind  of 
soil,  and  therefore  it  is  not  in  this  case  always  possible 
to  cater  to  all  the  requirements  of  each.  But  it  pays 
to  do  so,  as  nearly  as  is  practicable,  even  with  a  small 
family  orchard. 

Examine  the  subsoil.  Is  it  so  hard  and  so  near 
the  surface  that  tree  roots  can  never  hope  to  find 
a  secure  anchorage?  Does  water  stand  above  the 


SUGGESTION  FOR   HOME- 
ORCHARD    ARRANGEMENT 


14  BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 

subsoil  in  such  quantity  and  with  such  persistency  as 
to  threaten  "wet  feet"  to  the  trees?  If  the  former, 
seek  another  location  ;  if  the  latter^  make  up  your 
mind  to  tile  the  field  before  setting  the  trees.  There 
are  few  orchards  which  are  not  the  better  for  a  sys- 
tem of  underground  drains.  Better  do  the  necessary 
tiling  at  the  start,  rather  than  later.  Have  the  tile 
buried  three  feet  deep,  and,  if  possible,  lay  it  midway 
between  tree  rows. 

Now  let  us  consider  the  question  of  the  "right 
time."  Generally  speaking,  early  spring  is  the  best 
season  to  set  an  orchard.  There  are  some  exceptions 
to  this,  of  course.  For  instance :  Sweet  cherry  trees 
often  grow  better  when  set  in  the  fall.  Some  of  the 
more  hardy  fruits  —  apples,  pears,  etc., — may  be 
planted  in  autumn,  if  desired.  Latitude  has  much 
to  do  with  this  question.  The  farther  south  you  are, 
the  safer  it  is  to  practise  fall  planting. 

In  the  north,  however,  it  is  seldom  wise  to  set 
tender  trees,  like  peaches  or  plums,  until  spring; 
therefore  the  best  rule  I  can  give  to  the  planter 
who  isn't  an  expert,  is:  Stick  to  spring  planting. 
Tim  says  that  it's  "better  to  be  safe  than  sorry," 
and  I  am  sure  he  is  not  far  wrong. 

But  it  is  usually  good  policy  to  purchase  trees  in 
the  fall,  ' '  heel ' '  them  in  near  the  proposed  orchard, 
and  thus  be  ready  for  instant  action  when  the  ground 
gets  into  workable  shape  in  the  spring.  The  fall 
buyer  gets  first  choice  of  trees,  and  runs  no  danger 
of  delayed  spring  shipments.  Or,  buy  the  trees  in 
the  fall,  and  let  the  nurseryman  keep  them  for  you 
until  winter  is  over. 


STARTING   AN   ORCHARD  I    PLANNING 


15 


HEELING  IN"  TREES  : 

TRENCH  READY ; 
UNTYING  NURSERY  BUNDLE 


How  to  ' '  heel  in  ' ' 
trees  :  Dig  a  trench,  about 
a  foot  and  a  half  deep,  the 
same  in  width,  and  as  long 
as  may  be  necessary ;  if 
possible,  choose  a  high, 
sheltered,  well  -  drained 
spot.  Untie  the  bundles 
of  trees,  and  place  them 
loosely  along  the  trench, 
—  each  variety  by  itself, 
properly  labeled.  Half-a- 
dozen  trees  to  a  running 
foot  is  close  enough.  Of  course  put  the  roots  in  the 
trench  ;  then  incline  the  trees  backward  until  they 
are  ' '  half  lying  down  ' '  across  the  excavation.  Now 
shovel  in  fine  dirt,  carefully  firm  it  into  place,  and 
pile  the  remainder  of  the  excavated  dirt  well  up 
around  the  roots  and  lower  portion  of  trunks.  If 
the  climate  is  very  cold,  or  if  rabbits  and  mice 
are  feared,  earth  can  be  piled  still  higher  up 
around  the  trunks  and  perhaps  even  around  the 
lower  branches.  If  large  quantities  of  trees  are  to  be 

'  'heeled  in, "  work  is  les- 
sened and  matters  sim- 
plified if  close-together 
parallel  trenches  are 
used  instead  of  a  single 
long  one,  using  the  dirt 
from  each  new  trench  to 
cover  the  preceding  one. 
"HEELING  IN"  OPERATION  Drain  the  water  away 

COMPLETED,    EXCEPT   SHOVELING 

SOIL  IN  PLACE  from  the  trenches. 


16  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

I  earnestly  advise  all  intending  tree  planters  to 
visit  the  nearest  reliable  nursery  and  personally  select 
the  trees  wanted.  Pick  out  straight,  healthy,  properly- 
branched,  thrifty  trees.  Medium-size  trees  are  usually 
best.  Of  course  they  should  be  fumigated  and 
guaranteed  free  from  scale,  crown  gall,  etc.  (The  tops 
should  be  dipped  at  home  in  the  lime-sulphur  mixture, 
to  make  scale  assurance  doubly  sure.) 

But  perhaps  'you  may  prefer  to  grow  your  own 
trees,  instead  of  buying  them  already  grown.     If  so, 
you  will  find  directions  for  seed  sowing,  budding  and  ; 
grafting,  in  the  next  chapter. 

At  last  we  have  come  to  the  matter  of    "right 
varieties."     And   this   is   a   very   important  matter, 
indeed.     So  important,  in  fact,  that  if  it  requires  aj 
year  of  preliminary  study  and  inquiry  to  decide  the 
matter  rightly,  it  will  be  time  profitably  spent. 

Study   the   various  fruit  chapters  in   this    book,  /' 
wherein  I  have  endeavored  to  give  desirable  lists  of 
varieties  for  different  localities.     Write  to  your  state 
experiment  station,  mentioning  the  nature  of  your*' 
soil,  and  ask  for  special  advice  as  to  the  best  varieties 
for  you  to  plant ;  and  be  sure  to  state  whether  your-' 
orchard   is  wanted  for  market  or   family   purposes. 
Talk  with   practical   fruit-growers   in   your   locality. 
Consult  with  your  market  buyers  (if  you  are  to  have 
a  commercial  orchard) ,  or  with  your  family's  taste  (if 
it's  to  be  a  home  orchard) . 

Also,  before  buying  or  planning  an  orchard  01 
ordering  trees,  study  these  facts  about  pollination  oi 
blossoms:  Much  of  the  unsatisfactory  fruiting  of 
orchards  all  over  the  country  is  due  to  self-sterility. 
A  tree  is  self-sterile  if  it  can  not  set  fruit  unless 
planted  near  other  varieties.  The  main  cause  of 


STARTING    AN    ORCHARD  :    PLANNING  1 7 

self-sterility  is  the  inability  of  the  pollen  of  a  variety 
to  fertilize  the  pistils  of  that  variety.  An  indication  of 
self-sterility  is  the  continued  dropping  of  young  fruit 
from  isolated  trees  or  solid  blocks  of  one  variety; 
also,  fruit  from  a  self-sterile  tree  is  apt  to  be  imper- 
fectly formed.  Self-sterility  is  not  a  constant  character 
with  any  variety.  Poorly-nourished  trees  are  more  likely 
to  be  sterile  with  their  own  pollen  than  well-fed  trees 
are.  The  loss  of  fruit  from  self-sterility  may  be  pre- 
vented by  planting  other  varieties 
among  the  self -sterile  trees,  or 
by  grafting  other  varieties  into 
occasional  trees.  For  names  of 
varieties  which  are  often  self- 
sterile,  consult  each  special  fruit 
chapter  in  this  book. 

Getting  the  ground  ready  for  the  tree-setting  is 
another  important  part  of  ' 4  starting  an  orchard. ' '  If 
possible,  plow  it  in  the  fall.  At  least,  it  should  be 
plowed  previous  to  planting.  Harrow  it  until  the 
field  is  fine  and  level. 

If  the  ground  was  in  sod  last  year,  better  grow  pota- 
toes and  subdue  the  grass  previous  to  setting  trees. 
Preliminary  fertilizing  may  or  may  not  be  necessary 
or  desirable.  If  the  land  is  fairly  fertile,  I  should  pre- 
fer, ordinarily,  to  apply  manure  or  fertilizer  after  the 
trees  are  planted,  rather  than  before — 'tis  more  econom- 
ical. (See  Chapter  VI  for  further  fertilizing  facts. ) 

It  is  a  good  idea  to  make  a  plan  of  the  orchard,  drawn 
to  scale,  and  mark  thereon  just  where  each  tree  is  to  go. 
This  is  a  great  help  when  figuring  out  how  many  trees 
to  buy,  or  when  setting  the  trees,  or  in  after  years  when 
somebody  asks  :  ' '  What's  the  name  of  this  tree  ? ' ' 


18  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

DON'TS. 

Don't  plan  to  start  an  orchard  on  sod. 

Don't  waste  money  in  buying  "  big  "  trees. 

Don 'tallow  that  you  know  it  all :  consultwith  the  other  fellow. 

Don't  locate  an  orchard  011  or  very  near  the  steep  bank  of 
an  abrupt,  deep  ravine.  A  big  gully  often  acts  like  a  frost  trap. 

Don't  plan  to  set  large,  solid  blocks  of  trees  of  any  one 
variety.  Better  alternate  several  varieties  in  double  rows. 

Don't  forget  that  tree  roots  are  not  improved  by  exposure  to 
wind  or  sun.  Don't  let  them  dry  out,  unduly,  before  "heeling 
in  "  or  planting.  Protect  a  newly-dug  tree  as  you  would  a  baby. 

Don't  neglect  to  plan  for  the  planting  of  a  windbreak  on  the 
north  and  west  sides  of  the  orchard, — but  not  too  close ;  about 
forty  feet  distant  will  do.  Scotch  pine  or  Norway  spruce  makes 
a  good  shelter. 

The  orchardist  who  figures  the  "  possible  net  profit  from  one 
tree,"  and  then  multiplies  that  sum  by  the  number  of  trees  in  the 
orchard,  is  usually  storing  up  disappointment.  Orchards,  like 
chickens,  seldom  hatch  out  a  crop  exactly  "according  to  rule." 

Don't  figure  on  "novelties,"  nor  varieties  that  the  market 
doesn't  want ;  nor  varieties  that  are  already  overplanted.  Plant 
few  kinds  for  market,  rather  than  many  kinds.  Remember  that 
large,  uniform  lots  can  be  sold  to  better  advantage  than  an 
assortment  of  many  varieties.  "  Carload  lots  "  always  command 
attention. 

Don't  forget  that  the  near  presence  of  large  bodies  of  water 
(preferably  to  the  windward  of  the  orchard),  is  often  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  production  of  tender  varieties  of  fruit.  For 
example :  Peaches,  etc.,  are  successfully  grown  on  the  east  bank 
of  I<ake  Michigan,  and  not  on  the  west  bank;  and,  on  the  east 
bank,  the  crop  is  more  sure  within  three  miles  of  the  lake  than 
it  is  farther  inland. 

The  age  at  which  different  fruit  trees  begin  to  bear  moderately 
profitable  crops  varies  greatly  according  to  soil,  climate,  culture 
and  variety,  but  perhaps  a  fair  average  would  be:  Apples,  in  ten 
or  twelve  years  from  setting  (Spy,  Spitzenburg,  Rambo,  Seek-no- 
further,  etc.,  are  very  slow) ;  cherries,  five  or  six  years ;  oranges 
and  lemons,  eight  or  ten  years  ;  peaches,  four  or  five  years  ;  pears 
(standard) ,  ten  or  twelve  years ;  pears  (dwarf) ,  four  or  five  years  ; 
plums,  five  or  six  years;  quinces,  five  or  six  years.  (Note:  On 
irrigated  western  lands,  apples,  etc.,  often  bear  paying  crops 
sooner  than  the  above;  but  the  trees  are  usually  shorter  lived.) 


SMITH'S  CIDER 


SMOKEHOUSE 


CHAPTER  II. 


SEED-GROWING,  GRAFTING  AND 
BUDDING. 


Forward  in  the  name  of  God :  Plant,  graft  and  nourish  up 
trees  in  your  ground  ;  the  labor  is  small,  the  cost  is  nothing,  the 
commodity  is  great ;  yourselves  shall  have  Plenty,  the  Poor  shall 
have  somewhat  in  time  of  want,  and  God  shall  reward  your  good 
merits  and  diligence.— From  an  old  English  orchard  book. 

Nearly  all  orchard  trees  come  from  seeds  originally 
planted  in  nursery-beds,  and  later,  after  being  budded 
or  grafted,  transplanted  to  the  orchard.  They  are  in 
fact  usually  transplanted  once  or  more  before  being 
finally  put  out  in  the  orchard, — except  in  the  case  of  the 
chestnut,  hickory,  etc.,  which  object  to  being  trans- 
planted and  are  more  easily  grown  by  planting  the 
nuts  where  the  trees  permanently  belong. 

To  those  accustomed  to  sowing  flower  and  vegetable 
seeds  it  is  often  a  surprise  to  find  that  tree  seeds  do 
not  germinate  so  readily  as  the  others.  It  is  a  fact  that 
they  do  not.  Still,  fair  success  may  be  looked  for  by 
attention  to  the  preservation  and  sowing  of  the  seeds. 

Joseph  Meehan  says: — "As  a  rule,  all  kinds  of 
seeds  of  trees  are  the  better  sown  in  autumn.  As 
soon  as  the  seeds  are  ripe,  keep  them  in  a  cool  place 
and  in  sand  so  that  they  will  not  lose  weight  by  dry- 
ing. If  in  a  building  not  exposed  to  winds,  it  will  be 
a  suitable  place.  Apple,  cherry,  peach  and  the  whole 
list  of  such  trees  are  included.  Nurserymen  who 
raise  trees  by  the  millions  follow  this  plan. 
(19) 


20  BIGGIvK    ORCHARD    BOOK 

1 '  The  seeds  are  sown  in  beds,  usually  four  feet  in 
width,  the  seeds  well  covered,  as  any  other  seeds 
would  be.  A  covering  of  forest  leaves,  straw  or  like 
material  is  placed  over  the  beds,  kept  in  place  by 
adding  branches  of  trees,  sticks  or  prepared  slats. 
This  covering  is  taken  off  gradually  in  spring,  as  the 
seeds  germinate. 

"  Should  it  be  inconvenient  to  sow  in  autumn,  the 
same  result  may  be  expected  from  spring  sowing,  but 
the  seeds  must  be  properly  preserved.  There  must  be 
no  loss  of  weight  through  the  winter  ;  the  seeds  must 
be  as  fresh  in  spring  as  when  gathered.  To  accom- 
plish this,  either  keep  them  in  a  damp  cellar  or  mix 
them  with  slightly  damp  soil  and  keep  in  a  cool  cellar 
or  room.  What  is  required  is  that  the  seeds  absorb  a 
little  moisture  instead  of  losing  any,  and  this  the 
slightly  damp  soil  permits  of.  When  so  preserved, 
sow  them  the  very  first  thing  in  spring,  just  as  soon 
as  the  frost  leaves  the  ground.  There  need  be  no 
covering  of  leaves  or  straw  to  spring-sown  beds. 

"  Nurserymen  prefer  autumn  planting,  except  for 
hickory-nuts,  walnuts  and  a  few  such  seeds  which 
mice  are  apt  to  get  away  > with,  and  these  they  sow  in 
spring. 

"  For  autumn  sowing,  any  time  before  the  ground 
freezes  will  do,  but  be  sure  the  seeds  are  not  drying 
in  the  meantime.  Seasons  following  sowings  have 
much  to  do  with  the  vegetation  of  tree  seeds,  and 
even  experts  sometimes  fail  to  secure  a  crop." 

IMPORTANCE  OF  GRAFTING, — Were  all  forms  of 
the  art  of  grafting  and  budding  to  be  taken  from  the 
horticulturist  today,  commercial  fruit  growing  in  its 


SEED-GROWING,   GRAFTING   AND    BUDDING         21 

high  state  of  perfection  would  decay  with  the  orchards 
now  standing.  All  the  common  pomaceous  fruits 
(apples,  pears,  and  quinces) ,  the  stone  fruits  (peaches, 
plums,  cherries,  and  apricots),  and  the  citrus  fruits 
(lemons,  limes,  and  oranges) ,  are  now  multiplied  by 
grafting  or  budding.  The  progress  in  plant  breeding 
and  the  great  rapidity  with  which  new  sorts  are  now 
disseminated  could  not  be  attained  without  the  aid  of 
budding  or  grafting. 

THE  SCION  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. — A  scion  is  a 
portion  cut  from  a  plant,  to  be  inserted  upon  another 
(or  the  same)  plant,  with  the  intention  tha*  *t  shall 
grow.  The  wood  for  scions  should  be  taken  while  in 
a  dormant  or  resting  condition.  The  time  usually 
considered  best  is  after  the  leaves  have  fallen^  but 
before  severe  freezing  begins.  The  scions  should  be 
cut  in  about  six-inch  lengths  from  matured  new  wood 
from  bearing  trees  of  known  variety  ;  then  tied  in 
bunches  and  placed  in  moist  sand,  where  they  will 
not  freeze  and  yet  will  be  kept  cold  enough  to  pre- 
vent growth.  Good  results  may  follow  cutting  scions 
in  the  spring  just  before  or  at  the  time  the  grafting 
is  to  be  done,  but  it  is  a  much  better  plan  to  cut  the 
scions  in  the  fall. 

THE  STOCK  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. — The  stock  is 
the  tree  or  part  of  a  tree  upon  which  or  into  which  the 
bud  or  scion  is  inserted.  For  best  results  in  grafting 
it  is  essential  that  the  stock  be  in  an  active,  growing 
condition. 

How  To  CXEFT  GRAFT. — When  in  the  spring  the 
sap  begins  to  move  in  the  stock,  be  ready  ;  this  occurs 
early  in  the  plum  and  cherry,  and  later  in  the  pear 


22 


BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 


and  apple.  Do  the  grafting-,  if  possible,  on  a  mild 
day  during  showery  weather.  The  necessary  tools 
are  a  chisel  or  a  thick-bladed  knife  or  a  grafting  iron 
(with  which  to  split  open  the  stock  after  it  is  sawed 
off  smoothly  with  a  fine -tooth  saw),  a  hammer  or 
mallet  to  aid  the  splitting  process,  a  very  sharp  knife 
to  trim  the  scions,  and  a  supply  of  good  grafting  wax. 


SPLITTING  THE  BTOCK         TRIMMED  SCION         SCIONS  INSERTED 


SECTIONAL 

TOP  VIEW  OF  SCIONS 

IN  PLACE 


GRAFTING  WAX 
APPLIED 


CL.EFT   GRAFTING  I    FROM   START  TO   FINISH 

Saw  off  a  branch  at  the  desired  point,  split  the  stock 
a  little  way  down,  and  insert  a  scion  at  each  outer 
edge  —  taking  care  that  the  inner  bark  of  the  scion 
fits  snugly  and  exactly  against  the  inner  bark  of  the 
stock.  This — together  with  the  exclusion  of  air  and 
moisture  until  a  union  results — constitutes  the  secret 
of  success.  Trim  the  scions  wedge-shaped,  as  shown 
in  the  picture ;  insert  them  accurately  ;  the  wedge 


SEED-GROWING,   GRAFTING   AND   BUDDING         23 

should  be  a  trifle  thicker  on  the  side  which  comes  in 
contact  with  the  stock's  bark.  Lastly,  apply  grafting 
wax.  Each  scion  should  be  long  enough  to  have  two 
or  three  buds,  with  the  lower  one  placed  as  shown. 
The  " spring"  of  the  cleft  holds  the  scion  securely 
in  place,  and  therefore  tying  should  be  unnecessary. 
If  both  scions  in  a  cleft  grow,  one  should  later  be  cut 
away. 

GRAFTING  WAX. — To  four  pounds  of  resin  and  one 
of  beeswax  add  on«  pint  of  linseed  oil ;  put  in  an  iron 
pot,  slowly  heat  and  mix  well.  Pour  out  into  cold 
water  and  pull  by  hand  until  light-colored.  Keep  in 
a  cool  place.  To  use,  oil  the  hands,  work  the  wax 
until  soft,  and  apply  around  scions  and  cracks.  If 
weather  is  warm,  occasionally  moisten  hands  in  cold 
water. 

Another  recipe :  One  pound  of  resin,  one-half 
pound  of  beeswax  and  one-quarter  pound  of  tallow, 
melted  together  and  applied  with  a  brush.  Keep  in 
an  iron  pot ;  heat  for  use  when  wanted. 

OTHER  METHODS  OF  GRAFTING. — There  are  many 
other  methods  of  uniting  scion  and  stock,  a  few  of 
which  may  be  briefly  mentioned, —  although  the 
average  orchardist  seldom  has  use  for  methods  more 
complicated  than  the  ordinary  cleft  graft  : 

Bark  grafting :  A  branch 
is  sawed  off,  as  for  cleft 
grafting,  and  the  scions, 
instead  of  being  inserted  in 
a  cleft,  are  cut  very  thin  and 
slipped  between  the  bark 
and  wood,  being  inserted  HOW  BARK  GRAFTING  is  DONE 


24 


BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 


BRIDGE 
GRAFTING 


far  enough  to  bring  the  growing  parts  together.  The 
bark  is  then  securely  bound  and  wax  is  used  as  in  cleft 
grafting.  It  is  an  excellent  method  for  grafting  large 
limbs,  as  it  injures  the  stock  less  than  cleft  grafting. 
Bridge  grafting,  so-called,  is  merely 
a  method  for  saving  a  girdled  tree. 
Several  upright  scions  are  inserted  in 
the  bark,  at  top  and  bottom,  thus  fur- 
nishing bridges  or  connec- 
tions through  which  the  sap 
can  flow.  A  good  coating  of  grafting  wax 
is  then  applied.  If  all  goes  well,  the  tree 
grows  a  new  bark  on  the  girdled  part.  The 
illustration  explains  the  operation  fully. 
Crown  grafting  refers 
merely  to  a  grafting  opera-  ROOT 
tion  (any  style)  performed  GRAFTING 
on  the  stem  at  or  near  the  surface  of 
the  ground. 

Root  grafting  means  the  insertion 
of  a  graft  in  a  stock  which  is  entirely 
a  root. 

Saddle    grafting    is    plainly   shown 

Fi&'    L 

Shield  grafting: 
very  thin,  as  in  bark  grafting, 
and  is  inserted  under  the 
bark  of  the  stock  as  a  bud 
is  inserted  in  the  process  of 
budding,  and  is  firmly  bound 
in  place  with  waxed  cord  or 
raffia.  SHIELD  GRAFTING 


FIG.  I.      SADDLE 

GRAFTING 


The   scion    is   cut 


SEED-GROWING,   GRAFTING   AND    BUDDING         25 


method)     in 


SIDE 
GRAFTING 


Side  grafting :  See  illustration.  A, 
B  and  C  show  how  it  is  done. 

Splice  grafting  is  very  simple.  It  is 
like  whip  grafting,  minus  the  mortising. 
The  two  diagonally  cut  ends  are  fitted 
together  ("spliced")  and  then  held  in 
place  by  a  waxed  tie. 

Top    grafting    means,    simply,    the 
inserting    of    scions    (by    any   desired 
the    branches    of    trees. 

Many  a  worthless  tree  has  thus  been 
changed  into  a  desirable  variety. 
By  using  enough  scions  it  is  possible 
to  make  an  entire  new  top  on  almost 
any  tree.  See  Fig.  II,  and  study 
the  idea  shown  there.  It  is  not 
best  to  cut  away  too  much  of  the 
old  tree  at  once ;  therefore,  a  few 
FIG.  ii  secondary  branches  are  left,  and 

MAKING  A  NEW  TOP    these,  after  the  scions  are  thriftily 
growing,  can   gradually  be  cut  away  the 
following  season. 

Whip  grafting,  also  called  "tongue 
grafting"  (see  Fig.  Ill),  consists  of  an 
exact  "dovetailing"  of  scion  into  stock. 
Nurserymen  use  this  method  in  special 
cases,  and  often  in  root  grafting. 

THE  ART  OF  BUDDING. — This  consists 
in  taking  a  bud  from  one  tree  and  insert- 
ing it  under  the  bark  of  some  other  tree, 
says  Farm  Journal.     The  union  of  the  two,       FIG-  m 
the  bud  and  the  stock,  takes  place  at  the    GRAFTING 


26 


BIGGIE    ORCHARD   BOOK 


edges  of  the  bark  of  the  inserted  bud.  For  this  reasoi 
the  bud  should  be  inserted  as  soon  as  cut  from  its 
twig-  and  before  it  has  had  time  to  dry  out.  The  bud 
should  also  be  full,  plump  and  well  matured,  and  cut 
from  wood  of  the  current  season's  growth.  The  stock 
should  be  in  active  growth  so  that  the  bark  will  slip 
easily.  In  cutting  the  bud  a  sharp  knife  is  required, 


CUTTING  A  BUD  FROM 
A  BUD  STICK 


T-SHAPED 
INCISION  IN  STOCK 


RAISE  THE 
BARK,  THUS 


AND   INSERT 
THIS   BUD 


THEN   TIE  IT 
IN   PLACE 


NEXT   SEASON   CUT 
AWAY  THE   STOCK,  THUS 


BUDDING  :    FROM  A  TO  Z 

as  a  clean,  smooth  cut  is  desirable.  The  knife  is 
inserted  a  half  inch  below  and  brought  out  the  same 
distance  above,  shaving  out  a  small  wedge  of  wood 
under  the  bud  along  with  the  bark.  This  wedge  is  no 
hindrance  to  the  union  and  should  not  be  removed. 
The  leaf  is  always  clipped  off. 

To  insert  bud,  make  a  T-shaped  incision  just 
through  the  bark  of  stock,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. Raise  the  bark  carefully  without  breaking  it 


SEED-GROWING,   GRAFTING  AND   BUDDING         27 

and  insert  the  bud.  Practise  will  give  ease  and 
despatch  to  the  operator.  The  bud  must  be  held 
firmly  to  the  stock  by  a  bandage  wound  about  the 
stock  both  above  and  below  it,  being  careful  to  leave 
the  eye  of  the  bud  uncovered.  Raffia,  bast,  candle- 
wick  or  waxed  cloth  may  be  used  for  tying.  In  about 
ten  days,  if  the  bud  "takes,"  the  bandage  must  be 
removed,  or  the  stock  will  be  strangled  and  its  growth 
hindered.  The  work  of  budding  is  usually  performed 
in  July  or  August  in  the  North,  and  in  June  in  the 
South.  When  the  bark  peels  easily  and  the  weather  is 
dry  and  clear >  is  the  ideal  time. 

There  are  other  methods  of  performing  this  bud- 
ding operation,  but  the  one  described  is  in  most 
common  use.  Usually  the  buds  are  inserted  in  young 
seedling  trees  at  a  point  close  to  the  ground.  This 
done,  the  operation  is  complete  until  the  following 
season,  when  all  the  trees  in  which  the  buds  have 
"taken  "  should  have  the  top  cut  off  just  above  the 
bud.  (See  illustration  on  page  26.) 

BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING  COMPARED.  —  The 
removal  of  the  top  forces  the  entire  strength  of  the 
root  into  the  bud,  and,  since  the  root  itself  has  not 
been  disturbed  by  transplanting,  a  more  vigorous 
growth  usually  results  from  the  bud  than  from  scions 
in  grafting. 

The  one  objection  to  budding  is  that  it  causes  an 
unsightly  crook  in  the  body  of  the  tree,  unless  the 
tree  is  afterward  planted  deep  enough  in  the  orchard 
to  cover  the  deformity. 

The  best  methods  of  propagating  each  kind  of 
fruit  will  be  found  in  the  special  chapter  relating  to 
that  particular  kind. 


28  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

SPROUTS  FROM  EXPERIENCE. 

Repeated  freezing-  and  thawing-  while  in  a  moist  condition  is 
destructive  to  most  seeds. 

Tim.  says  that  orchard  grafters  are  the  only  kind  of  graf ters 
who  don't  get  into  trouble  nowadays. 

Be  sure  that  your  top  grafts  are  not  choked  out  by  being 
overshaded  or  interfered  with  by  growth  from  the  stock.  If 
lice  appear,  soak  the  pests  with  strong  tobacco-tea ;  do  this  early, 
before  the  leaves  curl  and  hide  the  insects. 

Cherry,  peach  and  other  pits  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry 
much  after  they  are  taken  from  the  fruit.  Wash  them  clean, 
dry  in  the  shade  sufficiently  to  prevent  mold,  and  then  stratify, 
or  store  as  directed  in  the  beginning  of  this  chapter. 

No  use  to  attempt  the  grafting  or  budding  of  unrelated 
fruits  ;  the  pomaceous  fruits,  the  stone  and  the  citrus  kinds,  are 
families  by  themselves.  For  example:  The  pear  works  nicely 
on  the  pear,  better  on  the  quince,  and  not  so  easily  on  the  apple, 
but  you  can't  induce  it  to  grow  on  the  cherry  or  the  plum.  And 
vice  versa. 

Nurserymen  frequently  practise  what  they  call  "stratifica- 
tion"; it  consists  in  placing  layers  of  seeds  alternating  with 
layers  of  sand  in  a  shallow  box.  This  box  may  be  buried  or  it 
may  be  set  in  a  sheltered  place  and  covered  with  leaves  or  straw 
to  the  depth  of  a  foot.  The  object  is  to  soften  and  decay  the  hard 
covering  without  starting  germination.  Freezing  is  beneficial 
in  case  of  walnuts,  hickory-nuts,  peach  pits,  and  the  like,  as  it 
helps  to  crack  the  shells.  Hence  such  seeds  are  sometimes 
stratified  in  boxes  placed  in  sheltered  spots  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  or  they  may  be  merely  placed  in  a  pile  on  the  ground 
with  a  slight  covering  of  leaves  or  straw.  A  special  point  to  be 
guarded  against  in  stratification  is  alternate  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing. Seeds  receiving  this  treatment  should  be  planted  imme- 
diately upon  being  removed  from  stratification  and  before  signs 
of  growth  appear.  A  few  hours'  exposure  to  wind  and  sun  may 
prove  disastrous. 


RAMBO 


KING 


CHAPTER  III. 


SETTING  TREES. 


Trees  are  like  children  :  In  the  beginning  they  give  us  a 
great  deal  of  trouble  and  worry,  but  in  the  end  we  are  Proud  of 
them. — Farmer  Vincent. 

Most  planters  make  the  mistake  of  setting-  their 
trees  too  closely  together.  It  seems  to  them  no  better 
than  an  extravagant  waste  of  ground  to  set  little 
spindling  trees  so  many  feet  apart,  and  it  requires 
some  imagination  to  think  that  the  trees  will  ever 
completely  occupy  the  ground.  As  the  man  stands  off 
to  survey  his  newly-set  orchard,  it  actually  seems  as  if 
there  were  nothing  there !  But  if  he  could  see  that 
same  orchard  a  few  years  hence,  in  his  mind's  eye, 
he  would  surely  see  the  great  wisdom  of  giving  each 
tree  plenty  of  ' '  elbow  room. ' ' 

Here  is  a  table  of  planting  distances  which  is  safe 
to  follow : 

Almonds, 16    to   20  feet  each  way. 

Apples,        30   to   40  feet  each  way. 

Apricots, 18    to   20  feet  each  way. 

Cherries,  sweet,  .  .  20  to  25  feet  each  way. 
Cherries,  sour,  .  .  16  to  18  feet  each  way. 
Chestnuts,  Paragon,  About  30  feet  each  way. 

Oranges, 25    to   35  feet  each  way.    (Dwarf  kinds  less). 

Peaches, 18    to  20  feet  each  way. 

Pears,  standard, .  .  20  to  25  feet  each  way. 
Pears,  dwarf,  ...  12  ft.  to  1  rod  each  way. 

Pecans, 35    to  40  feet  each  way. 

Plums, 18    to   20  feet  each  way. 

Quinces, 12  feet  each  way. 

(29) 


30  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

After  the  tree  planter  has  succeeded  in  conquering 
the  temptation  to  crowd  his  trees  too  closely  together, 
he  is  often  bitten  by  another  temptation — the  '  *  filler ' ' 
idea.  An  orchard  "filler,"  as  the  word  is  usually 
understood,  is  a  small  -  growing,  short-lived  tree, — 
something  which  begins  to  bear  fruit  quickly,  and 
which  can  be  cut  out  after  a  few  years  when  it  begins 
to  crowd  the  main  trees.  In  theory  the  idea  seems 
all  right,  but  in  actual  practise  it  does  not  often  work 
out  entirely  satisfactorily.  Usually  the  fillers  are  not 
cut  out  soon  enough.  It  requires  a  good  deal  of  pluck 
to  chop  down  a  nice  tree,  even  if  it  is  "only  a  filler." 
Then,  again,  there's  often  trouble  because  the  tran- 
sients and  the  permanents  require  different  treatment. 
For  instance,  the  full  -  strength  Bordeaux  mixture 
would  be  all  right  for  apple  trees  but  too  strong  for 
peach  or  Japanese  plum  trees ;  and  the  latter  might 
require  later  or  shallower  cultivation  than  the  non- 
producing  apples. 

The  effect  of  distance  between  apple  trees  set  about 
1880,  was  recently  studied  in  its  relation  to  yield. 
The  following  four-year  averages  were  found  : 

Bushels 
per  acre. 

Trees  not  more  than  30  x  30  feet  apart, 186 

Trees  31  x  31  to  35  x  35  feet  apart,      222 

Trees  36  x  36  to  40  x  40  feet  apart, 229 

Which  goes  to  show  that  it  does  not  pay  to  set  trees 
too  closely  together. 

The  first  thing  to  do  in  setting  an  orchard,  is  to 
lay  out  and  mark  the  outer  sides  of  the  field,  accu- 
rately,— these  being  the  base  lines  from  which  to 


SETTING  TRESS  31 

work  staking  operations.  Square  the  corners  by 
sighting  along  a  steel  square  laid  on  three  stakes,  the 
middle  stake  being  exactly  on  a  corner.  When  the 
four  corners  are  thus  established,  measure  and  stake 
where  the  outside  trees  are  to  go,  on  two  opposite 
sides  of  the  square.  But  do  not  have  these  tree- 
places  nearer  than  twenty  feet  to  the  outer  limits  of 
orchard  field  (if  there  are  shade  or  windbreak  trees 
on  the  orchard  line,  make  the  distance  at  least  forty 
feet) .  Remember  that  when  you  come  to  work  the 
orchard,  you  will  want  plenty  of  room  on  the  outer 
edges, — to  turn  the  team,  the  harrow,  or  the  wagon. 
The  square  system  of  planting  is  easiest  and 
therefore  most  commonly  used.  Trees  should  be  set 
exactly  straight,  because  this  adds  to  the  looks  of 
the  orchard  and  facilitates  cultivation.  Here  is  an 
excellent  method  of  staking  and  planting :  Begin  by 
using  a  small  rope  or  wire,  stretching  this  from  one 
base-line  to  the  corresponding  stake  on  the  opposite 
side  ;  then  put  in  small  pegs  along  its  entire  length, 
the  distance  apart  at  which  it  is  intended  to  plant  the 
trees.  After  the  whole  orchard  has  been  so  laid  out, 
take  a  double-staking  board  having  three  V-shaped 
notches  in  it.  This  board  may  be  about  four  feet  long 
and  perhaps  four  inches  wide  ;  any  thickness  desired. 
Start  at  the  first  peg  and  place  board  so  that  the  stake 
fits  in  the  centre  notch, — then  remove  this  stake  and 
put  it  in  the  notch  made  at  one  end  of  the  board,  and 
put  another  stake  in  the  notch  in  the  opposite  end  of 
the  board  ;  and  continue  until  the  whole  orchard  is 
double-staked  in  this  way.  A  hole  can  now  be  dug 
between  each  two  stakes.  To  do  the  planting  the 


32  BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

staking-board  is  again  brought  into  requisition  and 
placed  over  the  hole,  so  that  the  two  stakes  fit  into 
the  notches  at  the  end.  Then  the  young  tree  is  held 
so  that  its  trunk  fits  into  the  centre  notch, — just  where 
the  single  stake  stood  before  the  double-staking  took 
place.  In  either  double-staking  or  planting  always 
work  from  one  end  of  the  row  to  the  other,  and 
always  keep  the  centre  notch  of  the  board  facing  away 
I  from  you.  If  one  is  careful 

in  performing  this  work  it  is 
sure  to  turn  out  well.  This 
sounds  like  a  complicated  oper- 
ation, perhaps  ;  but  really  it  is 
very  simple  and  easy  in  practise. 
The  picture  plainly  shows  how 
the  board  is  made  and  used,  and 
it  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that 
each  tree  is  to  be  held  exactly  in 
place  in  the  notch  until  most  of 

sxAKmr,  BOARD  IN  USE  the  soil  i8  shoveled  into  the  hole 
and  firmed  securely  in  place. 

Number  of  trees  required  for  an  acre  : 

If  set  12  feet  apart, 302  trees. 

If  set  16%  feet  apart, 160  trees. 

If  set  18  feet  apart, 134  trees. 

If  set  20  feet  apart, 108  trees. 

If  set  25  feet  apart, 70  trees. 

If  set  30  feet  apart, 48  trees. 

If  set  36  feet  apart, 33  trees. 

If  set  40  feet  apart, 27  trees. 

(NOTE  :  The  foregoing  figures  are  based  on  the  square  system 
of  planting.  If  the  triangular  method  is  used,  about  one-eighth 
more  trees  can  be  set  on  each  acre.) 


SETTING   TREES  33 

The  one  objection  to  planting  in  squares,  says 
B.  Judson,  Idaho  Experiment  Station,  is  that 
it  does  not  cover  the  ground  uniformly  with  trees  ;  for 
instance,  A  is  farther  from  D,  and  B  from  C,  than  A 
from  B  or  C,  or  B  from  D  or  A, — making-  a  waste  of 
space  in  the  middle  of  the  square.  (See 
illustration.)  This  is  sometimes  utilized 
by  planting  a  tree  there,  such  as  a  peach 
or  some  quick-bearing  or  short-lived  tree, 
temporarily  to  occupy  the  ground  ;  but  this 
results  in  crowding,  in  a  very  few  years. 

The  best  scheme  for  getting  the  maximum  number 
of  trees  at  a  given  distance  apart  on  the  land,  is  the 
hexagon  or  triangle  system  (sometimes  called  the 
septuple  system),  which  makes  every  tree  exactly 
the  same  distance  from  each  of  its  neighbors.  The 
accompanying  diagram  shows  the  arrangement,  and 
the  dotted  lines  make  plain  the  triangles  and  hexa- 
gons. If  each  tree  is  joined  to  each  of  its  neighbors 
by  a  straight  line,  a  network  of  triangles  will  be 
formed,  and  each  group  of  six  triangles  around  each 

tree  forms  a  hexagon  with  a  tree       p- •          c 

in  the  centre.     There  are  several     /         /   \ 

ways  of  laying  out  an  orchard  on  j.. ^' :^;'. 9. 

this   plan,   the  most  expeditious    \ 

being  to  use  a  wire.  The  end  stakes      \/ 

of  the  second  row  are  most  easily 

found  by  means  of  a  wire  triangle,     / 

each  side  of  which  is  as  long  as  the     TRIANOLE  SYSTEM* 

desired  distance  between  trees.  °F  PLANTING 

Thomas  Meehan  gives  the  following  directions  for 
planting  fruit  trees  received  from  a  nursery,  and  he 


34 


BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 


has  covered  all  the  points  so  well  that  I  can  not  do 

better  than  to  quote  his  method : 

"Quickly  unpack  stock  upon  arrival;    shake  out 

packing  material ;  dip  the  roots  in  liquid  mud.  In 
case  stock  cannot  be  immediately  set 
out,  prepare  a  place  where  it  can  be  tem- 
porarily planted,  taking  care  to  cover 
roots  thoroughly,  working  the  soil  in 
among  the  fibres.  Dig  generous  holes, 
provide  good  soil  to  fill 

TREE  SET  TOO  them;   don't  bend  roots; 
HIGH          cleanly   cut   off    severely 

bruised  or  broken  roots,  and  never  let 

them  dry.     Dip  them  in  mud,  place  in 

hole,  throw  good  soil   in  hole,  tightly 

ramming    it    around   roots  after   each 

shovelful.    Leave  no  air-pockets.    After 

hole  is  filled,  cover  top  of  ground  thick- 
ly with  good,  well-rotted  stable  manure 
as  far  as  roots  extend. ' ' 

Look  out  for  crown  and  root  galls. 
Burn  all  such  trees.  Crown  gall  is  a 
common  disease  in  many  nurseries  and 
it  attacks  all  kinds  of  fruit  trees.  It  is 
the  worst  kind  of  folly 
to  plant  a  tree  which 

has   a  trace   of  this  disease,  for  not 

only  is  the  tree  pretty  sure  to  die  be- 
fore it  comes  into  full  bearing  but  the 

infection  may  be  spread  to  all  parts 

of  the  orchard.      If  galls    (knotty, 

bunchy  swellings)   are  found  at  the         PROPERLY 


TOO  LOW  AND 
IN  A  HOLLOW 


ROOTS  BADLY 
BUNCHED 
TOGETHER 


SETTING  TREES  35 

base  of  tree  trunk,  the  trouble  is  probably  the  fun- 
gous disease  called  crown  gall ;  if  found  on  the  roots 
of  apple  trees,  an  insect  called  the  woolly  aphis  is  to 
blame. 

USEFUL  SIDE  SHOOTS. 
A  tree  out  of  place  is  a  nuisance  ;  in  its  place  it  is  a  blessing. 

Do  not  let  manure  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  roots  of 
young  trees.  Apply  manure  as  a  mulch. 

An  assistant  is  very  helpful  when  setting  trees.  Two  men, 
or  a  man  and  a  boy,  can  work  together  to  good  advantage. 

Better  not  dig  holes  much  in  advance  of  the  tree -setting. 
Soil  dries  out  quickly,  and  roots  need  moist  earth  around  them. 

Thrifty  young  trees  are  more  apt  to  live  than  the  larger,  older 
ones.  Young  roots  are  smaller,  and  more  apt  to  be  all  taken 
up  in  transplanting. 

How  deep  should  trees  be  set  in  the  ground  ?  A  little  deeper 
than  they  were  set  when  growing  in  the  nursery.  Deep  enough 
so  that  the  joint  between  stock  and  scion  is  covered. 

For  measuring  purposes  a  wire  is  better  than  a  rope  or  cord, 
because  it  will  not  stretch.  Stick  a  bit  of  solder  on  the  wire, 
exactly  where  each  tree  is  to  come.  String  or  bits  of  cloth  tied 
on,  are  apt  to  slip. 

As  the  tree-setting  progresses,  it  is  a  good  plan  often  to 
"sight"  the  rows  across  from  side  to  side,  both  ways,  to  make 
sure  that  everything  is  exactly  straight.  The  eye  is  an  excellent 
detector  of  unsuspected  crooks  in  rows. 

In  exposed  situations  or  in  windy  localities,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  incline  the  newly-set  tree  slightly  toward  the  northwest  or 
whichever  point  of  the  compass  the  strong  winds  come  from. 
The  trees  will  straighten  as  they  grow. 

One  or  two  old  blankets  will  come  in  handy  when  setting 
trees.  As  fast  as  an  armful  of  trees  is  dug  from  the  heeling-in 
place,  wrap  the  roots  in  a  blanket  until  all  are  planted.  Don't 
let  the  roots  lie  around  in  sun  and  wind,  unprotected. 


36  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

The  safest  way  when  buying  fruit  trees  is  to  dip  them  in  the 
lime-sulphur  mixture  before  setting  them  or  heeling  them  in. 
Do  this  as  a  matter  of  precaution  against  the  San  Jose  scale 
louse.  The  best  way  to  fight  this  pest  is  to  fight  it  from  the  very 
beginning. 

Farm  Journal  says :  ' '  The  other  day  we  saw  Peter  Tumble- 
down on  his  way  home  with  a  load  of  loose  fruit  trees  from  a  local 
nursery.  The  wind  was  blowing,  the  sun  was  hot,  the  trees  were 
unprotected  by  even  a  blanket.  Next  year  Peter  will  be  finding 
fault  with  the  nurseryman  because  the  trees  are  no  good." 

How  not  to  plant  trees  :  "  Dig  a  hole,  do  not  trouble  about  its 
depth  -R.OT  the  space  that  will  be  required  for  the  roots.  If  the 
soil  consists  of  brickbats,  it  will  do  !  Select  a  tree  that  is  sure  to 
be  too  big  for  its  place  in  a  short  time.  You  can  then  cut  off  its 
branches  and  make  it  look  like  a  real  work  of  art,  such  as  a 
clothes-prop  or  a  gibbet.  Plant  the  trees  as  thickly  as  possible, 
and  forget  to  thin  them  out.  You  will  then  produce  an  imme- 
diate effect,  and  you  will  have  the  satisfaction  of  witnessing  a 
fight — and  appreciating  a  struggle  for  existence.  Having  planted 
your  tree,  stake  it  in  such  a  way  that  the  stem  may  be  snapped 
off;  this  will  give  the  wind  something  to  do.  Never  think  of 
removing  the  stake  or  loosening  its  ties — that  would  involve  too 
much  trouble.  Avoid  placing  any  guard  around  the  newly- 
planted  trees.  In  this  way  you  will  provide  fodder  for  your 
neighbor's  horse,  which  will  graze  contentedly  on  the  bark  ; 
and  you  will  provide  healthful  amusement  for  the  boys,  who 
will  playfully  score  the  bark  with  their  knives."  My  good  wife 
Harriet  clipped  these  rules  from  an  old  publication,  and  "she 
says  that  they  are  full  of  "contrary  usefulness." 


BEN  DAVIS 


RHODE    ISLAND  GREENING 


CHAPTER  IV. 


PRUNING  AND  EARLY  CARE  OF 
NEWLY-SET  TREES. 

Take  care  of  your  orchard  and  your  orchard  will  take  care  of 
you. —  Harriet. 

The  newly-set  tree  must  quickly  be  pruned.  As  it 
stood  in  the  nursery  row  there  was  approximately  a 
balance  between  the  top  and  the  roots,  the  latter  being 
just  about  enough,  under  the  conditions  of  that  soil, 
to  supply  what  moisture  and  nourishment  the  leaves 
and  branches  needed.  Evidently  if  half  of  the  roots 
were  suddenly  removed  this  equilibrium  would  be 
destroyed,  and  each  leaf  would  show  its  distress  at  the 
decreased  sap  pressure,  by  wilting,  and  the  weaker 
ones  would  probably  die. 

Now,  that  is  essentially  the  condition  of  the  nursery 
tree  ;  no  matter  how  carefully  it  was  dug,  many  of  its 
fine  feeding  roots  are  sure  to  have  broken  off,  or  have 
dried  up;  and  until  it  can  re-establish  its  relations 
with  the  soil,  and  put  out  new  roots  to  take  the  place 
of  those  destroyed,  it  is  totally  unable  to  support  and 
nourish  the  original  amount  of  top.  The  fine  root- 
hairs,  which  appear  like  fuzz  near  the  tips  of  the 
smaller  roots,  and  do  most  of  the  absorbing  for  the 
roots,  dry  out  almost  instantly  on  exposure  to  air,  and 
are  practically  all  destroyed  in  transplanting.  It 
takes  some  time  to  form  these  anew,  and  if  the  whole 
top  is  left  to  "  leaf  out "  during  the  process,  the  rapid 
(37) 


38  BIGGU3    ORCHARD    BOOK 

evaporation  from  so  many  points  will  result  in  disas- 
trous drying  of  the  whole  tree. 

That  can  be  avoided  by  cutting  back  the  top  to 
correspond  with  the  roots,  thus  reducing  evaporation 
to  the  point  where  they  can  supply  the  loss.  In  the 
case  of  the  yearling  whip  without  side  branches,  it  is 
sufficient  to  cut  it  off  at  the  height  at  which  it  is 
intended  the  leader  shall  start  out — say  about  two  or 

three  feet  above  ground. 
Always  cut  to  a  bud, 
making  a  sloping  cut 
which  leaves  not  more 
than  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  projecting  beyond 

TOO  HIGH       TOO  LOW        CORRECT       the     ^^          ^UTing    the 

..       ,,  summer    all    the    buds 

CUTTING  "  TO  "  A  BUD 

along  the  side  will  de- 
velop branches ;  all  the  lower  ones  and  those  not  in- 
tended to  form  the  main  framework  of  the  tree  must 
be  pinched  off,  otherwise  the  lower  branches  may 
make  a  shrub  of  your  tree.  Aim  to  throw  all  the 
strength  of  the  growth  into  the  required  main 
branches. 

Branched,  or  two-year-old  trees,  require  a  different 
style  of  pruning  after  being  set.  The  lower  limbs 
have  generally  been  cut  off  by  the  nurserymen  before 
the  tree  reaches  the  planter,  so  the  height  of  the 
"head"  is,  in  a  sense,  already  fixed.  What  remains 
to  be  done  is  to  choose  three,  four  or  five  limbs  to 
form  the  future  framework  of  the  tree.  These  should 
come  out  from  the  trunk  in  different  directions,  dis- 
tributed as  evenly  as  possible ;  and,  if  feasible,  no 


PRUNING:  CARE  OF  NEWI,Y-SET  TREES 


READY   TO    PRUNE 

NEWLY-SET  APPLE 

TREE 


two  branches  should  come  out  exactly  opposite  each 

other,  or  a  weak  crotch  will  be  formed  which  may 

break  and  split  at  some  critical 

time.     Severely   cut  back    the 

chosen   limbs  and  remove   all 

other  limbs.      Bach  of  the  re- 
maining limbs  should  now  be 

about  six  or  eight  inches  long ; 

usually  with  the  terminal  bud 

pointing  outward  on  each.      (If 

the  variety's  habit  of  growth  is 

naturally  very   spreading  it  is 

sometimes   best  to  correct  this 

tendency,  by  cutting  to  terminal 

buds  which  point  inward. ) 
FORMS    OF    HEADS.  —  The 

apple,  peach,  plum,  quince,  sour  cherry,  and  similar 
trees,  frequently  seem  best  adapted 
to  the  open -centre,  spreading, 
standard  form.  In  such  cases  a  cen- 
tral leading  shoot  is  not  needed  or 
wanted.  This  matter  is  more  or  less 
a  matter  of  choice.  Some  folks 
prefer  a  ' '  leader, ' '  others  do  not. 
The  sweet  cherry,  pear,  etc., 
often  seem  best  suited  to  the  up- 
right, central -leader  form.  In 
such  instances  it  is  usual  to  have 
this  main  shoot  a  little  longer 
than  the  side  branches, — with  its 
terminal  bud  pointing  toward  the 
direction  of  prevailing  high  winds. 


SAME  APPLE  TREE 


40  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

PRUNING  PEACH  TREES. — It  is  customary  to  prune 
newly-set  peach  trees  differently  from  most  other  trees. 
,  Whether  the  nursery  tree  is  a 

<«^  branchless  whip,  or  a  well-branched 

tree,  the  entire  top  should  be  cut 
',"%|  off  at  the  point  where  a  new  head 

^  is  wanted.    If  any  branches  remain 

J^H  below  that  point,   those,  also,  are 

T^r  cutoff, — not  too  closely,  however; 

ffiL  'tis  usually  better  to  leave   stubs 

about  an  inch  in  length,  so  as  not 
JH  fo     injure     the     remaining     bud. 

Some  peach  growers  cut  off  their 
trees  at  a  uniform  height  of  about 
NEWLY-SET  PEACH        one  and  one-half  feet ;   others  pre- 

TREE,  BEFORE  ,     A  , 

PRUNING  fer  a  height  of  two,  or  two  and 

one-half,  or  even  three  feet.      The  decision  depends 
somewhat  on  the  size  of  the  trees,  and  the  grower's 
personal  preference ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
lowest  possible  head,  consistent       pr 
with  future  cultivation,   is  most 
desirable.     Two  feet,  or  two  feet 
and  a  quarter,  is  perhaps  a  happy 
medium. 

THE  ' '  STRINGFEI,I,OW  METH- 
OD. ' ' — A  very  severe  kind  of  root 
and  top  pruning,  known  as  the 
Stringfellow  method,  is  some- 
times advocated.  The  chief  ad- 
vantage claimed  is  that  the  roots 
grow  straiffhter  downward  than 

.    ,  .      .  SAME  PEACH  TREE. 

with  ordinary  trees,  giving  greater        AFTER  PRUNING 


PRUNING:  CARE  OF  NEWI<Y-SET  TREES 


41 


NEWLY-SET    PEAR 

TREE,   BEFORE 

PRUNING 


security  against  drought  and  high  winds.  The  labor 
of  setting  is  also  much  reduced,  as  a  small  hole  will 
WH  accommodate  the  stubbed  roots, 
and  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  pack 
the  earth  around  them.  The  tree 
is,  in  fact,  reduced  to  a  cutting  ; 
but  cuttings  of  woody  plants  are 
not  apt  to  do  especially  well  out- 
of-doors  in  this  country.  To  grow 
a  cutting  successfully  the  soil 
should  be  as  warm  or  warmer  than 
the  air,  to  stimulate  the  formation  of 
roots  before  the  top  starts  to  grow ; 
if  the  latter  starts  first,  the  demand 
for  sap,  and  rapid  evaporation,  will 
quickly  exhaust  the  juices  of  the 
stem,  and  it  dies.  In  the  sandy  soils  of  Texas, 
in  which  Mr.  Stringfellow  planted  his  trees,  he 
had  a  natural  propagating  bed,  a 
very  warm  soil  and  all  the  condi- 
tions to  make  cuttings  do  well.  I 
will  admit  that  some  orchardists 
in  other  states  have  had  more  or 
less  success  with  this  method; 
but,  personally,  I  prefer  to  plant 
my  trees  in  the  good  old  way — 
with  all  the  roots  on  them  possi- 
ble. Tim  says  that  he  can't  see  m 
any  wisdom  in  cutting  off  a  tree's 
entire  stomach. 

RECORD  OF  VARIETIES. — The         SAME  PEAR  TREE 

,  .     ,  - .    ,  -,  PRUNED.    CENTRAL- 

best  way  to  establish  such  a  record  LEADER  FORM 


42  BIGGIE    ORCHARD   BOOK 

is  to  make  a  detailed  plan  of  the  orchard  as  advised  in 
Chapter  I.  The  map  should  show  the  proper  name, 
place  and  age  of  each  tree.  The  next  best  way  is  to 
label  the  trees.  Whatever  you  do,  don't  trust  to 
memory. 

A  good  tree  label :  Procure  a  thin  piece  of  sheet 
zinc,  six  inches  wide,  from  which  cut  strips  crosswise 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide  at  one  end,  and  taper- 
ing to  one-eighth  inch  at  the  other  end.  Odd  pieces 
of  old  zinc,  stove  boards,  etc.,  may  thus  be  utilized. 
After  being  cut,  the  pieces  should  be  put  in  vinegar  to 
allow  them  to  corrode,  after  which  an  ordinary  lead 
pencil  will  complete  the  business.  Either  or  both 
sides  can  be  written  upon.  And  the  writing  will  last 
, for  years,  too,  so  that  ' '  he  who 

\BM.DWIN-MAH.  1906  1  ,    ,,  ,  ,          ,  f 

-1  runs  may  read  ;  as  hundreds  ot 
labels  in  this  vicinity  can  testify.  The  diagram  ex- 
plains the  idea.  Simply  wrap  the  small  end  of  label 
loosely  around  a  limb  of  the  tree — rather  than  around 
the  trunk.  As  the  limb  grows,  loosen  the  label  some- 
what, or  change  it  to  a  smaller  limb.  On  the  reverse 
side  of  the  label  it  might  be  well  to  write  the  name 
of  the  agent  or  nurseryman  who  furnished  the  tree ; 
then,  later,  if  the  variety  proves  untrue  to  name,  you 
will  know  whom  to  blame. 

LOOK  OuT  FOR  CUMBING  CUT-WORMS. — Thou- 
sands of  newly-set  fruit  trees  die  every  spring  — 
' '  unaccountably. ' '  Usually,  too,  the  nurseryman  who 
furnished  the  stock  is  blamed;  when,  in  reality,  the 
trouble  is  often  a  climbing  cut-worm  that  comes,  like 
a  thief  in  the  night,  to  feast  on  the  swelling,  luscious 
buds.  And,  when  daylight  appears,  he  crawls  down 


PRUNING:  CARE  OF  NEWI.Y-SET  TREES        43 

and  hides  in  the  soil  or  under  a  stick.     Oh,  he's  a  sly 
fellow  ! 

This  slightly -reduced  picture  shows  how  this 
whitish  pest  looks  when  he's  at 
work.  Several  methods  of  com- 
bating cut-worms  have  been  in- 
vented, but  one  of  the  best  ways 
is  to  fence  them  out.  Fig.  I  gives 
the  idea.  Cut  some  stiff  tar-paper  into  strips  about 
nine  inches  long  and  two  or  three  inches  wide.  Put 
a  strip  around  a  tree  trunk,  tightly  lap  the  edges  an 
inch  or  more,  and  push  the  lower  half  of  the  circle 
into  the  soil — to  anchor  it  and  to  prevent  worms  from 
easily  burrowing  beneath.  It  takes  but  a  short  time 
— and  only  a  few  cents — thus  to  protect  several  hun- 
dred newly-set  trees.  All  that  is  necessary 
is  to  have  the  paper  at  least  an  inch  and  one- 
half  away  from  all  parts  of  the  tree  ;  to  have 
the  edges  lapped  tightly  ;  and  to  make  sure 
that  no  worms  are  hid  in  the  soil  between 
L  the  paper  and  the  tree.  Any  kind  of  stiff 
paper,  or  wood  veneer,  or  tin,  will  do  ;  I  pre- 
fer tar-paper  because  it  is  lasting  and  cheap. 
An  orchard  thus  protected  is  safe  for  many  weeks — 
until  cut-worm  danger  is  mostly  over.  Just  why  the 
worms  do  not  "climb  over  the  fence, "  is  a  puzzle.  But 
they  very  rarely  do.  These  worms  are  less  trouble- 
some on  heavy  soils  than  on  light  soils.  They  seem 
to  prefer  sandy  ground,  in  which  they  can  more  easily 
hide  and  propagate. 

DANGER  OF  PREMATURE  FRUIT-BEARING. — The 
act  of  bearing  fruit  is  sure  to  stunt  the  growth  of 


44  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

very  young  trees.  It  pays  to  pick  off  the  blossom 
from  all  very  young-  fruit  trees.  Two  neighbors  trie 
this  in  two  similar  cherry  orchards.  One  man  ha 
the  children  pick  off  all  blossoms  each  year  ;  th 
other  man  didn't.  At  the  end  of  five  years  the  fin 
man's  trees  were  nearly  twice  as  large  as  the  secon 
man's.  (Age  of  trees,  care  and  soil,  were  the  same 
otherwise. ) 

HINTS   FOR  THE   HEEDFUI,. 

Don't  forget  to  visit  the  young  trees  often  and  rub  off  a 
shoots  which  are  not  needed,  in  the  formation  of  the  new  heai 

Don't  overlook  this  fact:  Success  or  failure  with  an  orchai 
after  it  has  been  planted  depends  upon  the  care  given  the  your 
trees  for  the  first  few  years. 

Many  a  nice  little  tree  has  been  ruined  because  its  own< 
forgot  to  remove  the  wire  label  that  the  nurseryman  put  ther 
Better  look  after  those  wires  right  away. 

Don't  neglect,  after  the  first  heavy  rain  in  May,  to  thro 
two  forkfuls  of  strawy  manure  around  each  newly  -  plante 
tree, —  to  keep  the  moisture  in  and  to  insure  a  good  start 

If  the  location  is  a  windy  or  unprotected  one,  don't  forg 
in  late  summer  to  stake  the  young  trees.  But  use  cloth  bane 
about  the  bark — not  cord  or  wire,  which  would  probably  cha 
and  injure  the  tender  trunks. 

If  the  ground  around  young  fruit  trees  is  not  kept  constant] 
cultivated,  the  trees  should  be  heavily  mulched  all  summe 
Straw  or  strawy  manure  is  a  good  mulch.  Newly-set  trees  ha^ 
no  depth  of  root  and  they  dry  out  very  rapidly. 

Don't,  as  a  rule,  when  pruning  newly-set  trees,  cut  "to 
terminal  buds  which  point  inward.  Why?  Because,  if  you  di 
the  new  top  shoots  will  be  apt  to  grow  in  the  direction  the  buc 
point,  thus  causing  crossed  limbs  in  the  centre  of  the  new  tre 
head. 

The  advantages  of  low-headed  trees,  says  Prof.  Bailey,  ma 
be  mentioned  as  follows :  Greater  ease  in  picking,  thinninj 
pruning  and  spraying,  and  less  damage  to  trees  and  fruit  froi 
winds.  Some  growers  object  to  low-headed  trees  on  account  < 
the  greater  difficulty  of  cultivating  around  them,  but  with  prop< 
pruning  low-headed  trees  develop  ascending  branches  whic 
permit  proper  working  with  a  team. 


PLATE  IV 


TWENTY 
OUNCE 


CHAPTER  V. 


LATER  PRUNING. 


The  ideal  Pruning  consists  not  in  checking  growth,  but  in 
directing  it. 

Before  touching  saw  or  knife  to  a  tree,  the 
orchardist  should  have  well  in  mind  what  he  ought 
to  accomplish  by  the  work.  Among  the  following 
are  the  chief  objects  sought: 

1.  To  restore  the  balance  between  top  and  roots  at 
time  of  setting  out  (as  told  in  Chapter  IV) . 

2.  To  make  the  top  open-centred, 
regulate  the  number  of  limbs  com- 
posing it,  fix  it  at  the  proper  height 
from  the  ground,  and  do  away  with 
weak  crotches. 

3.  In    older    trees,     to    remove 
crossed  branches,  and  thin  them  out 
to  admit  sunlight  and  thus  facilitate 
spraying,  ripening,  etc. 

4.  To  induce   the   production  of 
fruit    rather    than    wood,    and   vice 
versa ;    in   other  words,    to   correct 
shy  bearing  and  overbearing. 

5.  To  keep   lower  limbs   out   of 
the  way  of  cultivation,   and  upper 
ones  from  growing  out  of  easy  reach 
of  spraying,  picking,  etc. 

6.  To  change  biennial  to  annual  bearing  ;  in  other 
words,  to  break  a  tree  of  the  ' '  off  year  ' '  habit. 

(45) 


46 


BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 


7.  To  correct  a  too  compact  or  a  too   spreadin 

growth  of  top. 

The   "ideal"   pruning,   says  W.  N.    Hutt,   woul 

consist  in  removing  not  branches  but  buds ;  not  i 
checking  growth  but  in  dired 
ing  it.  It  is  less  shock  to  th 
tree  to  pinch  off  buds  here  ani 
there,  than  a  few  years  later  t 
saw  off  large,  misplaced  limbs 
From  the  sap  is  manufacture* 
both  wood  and  fruit ;  it  is  better 
therefore,  to  direct  the  energ; 
of  the  mature  tree  toward  grow 
ing  fruit  which  goes  to  the  cella 
and  market,  than  in  making 
wood  which  goes  to  the  brusl 
pile.  It  is  largely  a  questioi 
of  the  proper  direction  of  th< 
Many  trees  may  be  so  formec 

and  shaped  when  young  that  in  later  years  pruning 

need  be  only  slight,  and  it  will  never  be  necessary  t< 

cut  out  large  limbs.     Few  of  us,  however,  are  able  t( 

live  quite  up  to  this  ideal  method,  and  so  we  ofter 

resort  to  the  saw  and  shears. 

WHEN  To  PRUNE. — The  time  that 

pruning  should  be  done  is  determined 

by  the  purpose  such  pruning  is  intended 

to  serve.    Pruning  of  trees  to  encourage 

fruitfulness  should  be  done  in  summer 

when  the  trees  are  in  active  growth, — 

preferably  in  Tune.     Pruning  for  wood 

,  -     ,         LONG-HANDLE! 

growth,  on  the  other  hand,   should  be          TOOLS 


THREE   PRUNING   TOOLS 
MOST   USED 

energies  of  the  tree. 


PRUNING 


47 


done  when  the  trees  are  dormant.     The  best  time  is 
in  the  spring  before  the  buds  start. 

Pruning  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  done  in  winter 
time.  When  a  wound  is  made  in  winter  the  delicate 
cambium  bark  layer  is  exposed  to  rough  winds  and 
low  temperatures  and  is  killed  back  for  some  distance 
between  the  bark  and  the  wood.  Every  day  of  zero 
weather  increases  the  trouble,  and,  in  spring  when 
growth  starts,  in- 
stead of  the  cambium 
starting  at  the  cut  to 
heal  over  the  wound, 
it  has  to  start  consid- 
erably below.  Frost- 
bitten wounds  are 
slow  to  heal. 

Thousands  of 
fruit  -  growers  inva- 
riably prune  their 
trees  in  early  spring, 
— not  from  any  well- 
considered  convic- 


THREE-YEAR-OLD   PEACH   TREE, 
AFTER  BEING  PRUNED 


tions  as  to  the  effect 
on  the  trees,  but 
merely  because  it  is 
the  slack  season  of  the  year  and  therefore  most  con- 
venient for  pruning  operations.  These  good  folks 
should  ask  themselves  this  question  :  ' '  Do  I  most 
need  and  want  wood  growth  in  my  orchard,  or  fruit 
growth?" 

If  the  orchard  has  been  recently  set,  or  if  it  is  old 
and  run-down,  wood  growth  may  be  more  desirable 


48 


BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 


for  awhile.  But  if  there  is  already  sufficient  wood 
growth,  why  prune  at  a  time  that  forces  more  of  it? 
Stop  and  think  a  bit. 

GENERAL  Rui,ES  FOR  PRUNING. —  Never  cut  away 
more  wood  than  is  necessary  to  obtain  the  end  in 
view.  Err  on  the  side  of  cutting  too  little  rather  than 
too  much,  for  if  too  much  is  taken  off  it  can  not  be 
replaced  in  many  years.  Large  crops  of  fruit  can  not 
be  grown  on  trees  with  a  few  exposed  branches.  Cut 
out  all  dead  wood  as  soon  as  it  is  discovered.  If  two 
branches  rub  together  so  as  to  injure  one  another,  the 
weaker  should  be  cut  away.  If  one  branch  rests  on 
the  top  of  another,  one  should  be  removed.  Head 
back  and  thin  out  the  top  rather  than  cut  off  the  lower 
branches,  so  as  to  bring  the  fruit  as  low 
as  possible,  on  account  of  thinning, 
spraying,  and  harvesting.  Never 
remove  entire  side  branches  if  it  can 
be  avoided.  If  it  must  be  done,  cut 
as  shown  in  Fig.  I ;  thus  the  tree  is 
PRUNING  A  SIDE  trimmed  up  for  horse  cultivation  with- 
BRANCH  oirt  sacrincing  the  whole  of  main  limb. 
All  cuts  should  be  left  as  smooth  as 
possible  ;  and  all  wounds  more  than  one- 
half  inch  in  diameter  ought  to  be  covered 
with  a  coat  of  thick  linseed  oil  paint, — 
to  keep  out  dampness  and  prevent  rot 
while  Nature  is  healing  the  cut. 

Never  leave  a  stub.     Cut  close,   yet 
not  too  close.      (See  Fig.  II.) 

Cut  out  suckers  on  a  tree  whenever 
you  see  them.     Also,  watch  for  and  cut 


I<ATKR   PRUNING 


49 


off  any  suckers  which  may  grow  from  base  of  trunk. 

Do  this  at  any  time. 

When  cutting-  off  fair-size  limbs,  saw  the  underside 

of  the  limb  about  one-third  of  the  way 

through,  or  till  the  saw  begins  to  pinch, 

and  then  saw  on  top  about  one-half  inch 

from   the  undercut;    and  when   sawed 

down  almost  to  the  undercut  the  limb 

will  break  off  and  not  peel         FIQ  m 
down  the  side  of  the  tree.      CUT  NOT  so 
(See    illustrations,    Figs.    Ill   and    IV.) 
Then  continue  the  top  cut  so  as  to  leave 
no  stub. 

Root-pruning  is  sometimes  practised, 
the  object  being  to  check  the  growth  of 

a  vigorous  tree   (which  is  old  enough  to  bear,  but 

which  refuses  to  do  so) ,  and  thus  favor  the  develop- 
ment of  fruit  buds.      This  operation  is  seldom  neces- 
sary, however,  and  few  orchardists  ever  attempt  it 
Pruning  a  neglected  old  orchard  is 

often  a  puzzling  job.    To  do  the  work 

right,    a    vast   amount   of    wood    must 

come  off,  and,  consequently,  the  average 

pruner  is  likely  to  remove  too  much, 

thus    doing    more    harm    than    good. 

Here's  a  good  rule  for  such  cases  :     Do 

the    job    in    three    installments  —  one 

each  year — and  no  installment  unduly 

heavy. 

Keep  all  pruning  tools  sharp.    Prune  annually  but 

not  heavily.     Never  allow  stock  to  prune  your  trees. 

Heavy  pruning  conduces  to  wood  growth. 


THIS  MAN  IS 

MAKING  THE 

MISTAKE  OF 

LEAVING  A  STUB 


50  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

CUTTINGS. 

Drastic  pruning  strikes  at  the  vitality  of  the  tree. 
Never  hurt  the  bark,  bore  holes,  or  drive  nails  into  trees. 
Unpruned,  uncultivated  orchards  are  not  money-makers. 

The  orchard  is  not  a  profitable  source  of  firewood,  says  Prof. 
Bailey. 

A  heavy  pruning  is  always  followed  by  a  heavy  growth  of 
suckers. 

The  hatchet  and  the  ax  are  not  good  pruning  tools,  says 
Farmer  Vincent. 

There  is  such  a  thing  as  having  the  head  or  centre  of  a  tree 
too  open.  A  happy  medium  is  best. 

Special  pruning  directions  for  each  kind  of  tree  will  be  found 
in  the  chapters  devoted  to  The  Apple,  The  Pear,  The  Cherry,  etc. 

Don't  leave  the  pruning  to  ignorant  or  careless  hired  men. 
Do  it  right.  The  more  the  pruner  knows,  the  better  he  can 
prune. 

It  is  a  common  notion  that  the  branches  gradually  get  higher 
from  the  ground  as  the  tree  continues  to  grow.  The  apparent 
gain  in  height  is  due  solely  to  the  increase  in  diameter  of  the 
limbs,  which  soon  begin  to  crowd  if  sufficient  space  has  not  been 
left  between  them.  The  centres  of  the  limbs  will  always  remain 
the  same  distance  apart. 


tree  presents  a  ainereni;  prooiem.  A  micK  growtn  01  new  pranches 
results  in  weak  bearing  shoots  and  spurs.  When  cutting  back 
limbs  on  bearing  trees  the  cut  should  be  made  just  above  a  strong 
lateral,  wherever  possible.  The  tendency  of  the  sap  will  then  be 
to  flow  into  the  lateral  and  thus  prevent  the  formation  of  the 
numerous  branches  which  nearly  always  result  when  a  so-called 
stub-cut  is  made. 

The  orchardist  should  become  well  acquainted  with  the  habit 
of  growth  of  different  varieties.  A  few  kinds  grow  slowly  and 
will  not  bear  heavy  pruning.  Others  are  erect  growers ;  and 
some  are  spreading.  One  can  not  expect  entirely  to  overcome 
such  tendencies,  but  they  may  be  corrected  to  a  marked  degree. 
The  upright  varieties  may  be  spread  somewhat  by  pruning  to 
outside  laterals  or  buds,  and  the  spreading  kinds  may  be  con- 
tracted by  cutting  to  laterals  or  buds  which  have  an  inward 
direction.  And  by  cutting  back  the  vigorous  growers  each 
season,  the  limbs  are  made  stocky,  thus  in  great  measure  doinjf 
away  with  drooping  branches. 


YELLOW  NEWTOWN  PIPPIN 


CHAPTER  VI. 


CULTIVATION.    FERTILIZATION.   THINNING. 


If  a  man   isn't  willing  to  curry  and  feed  his  orchard,  he 
needn't  expect  thoroughbred  results. — Tim. 

The  offices  of  tillage  are  several.    Among  the  more 
important  ones  are  : 

1.  The  setting  free  of  plant  food  by  increasing  the 
chemical  activities  in  the  soil. 

2.  The  soil  is  made  finer  and  hence  presents  greater 
surfaces  to  the  roots,  thus  increasing  the  area  from 
which  the  roots  can  absorb  nutriment. 

3.  The  surface  of  the  soil  is  kept  in  such  condition 
that  it  immediately  absorbs  all   the  rain  that  falls 
during  the  summer,  when  it  is  apt  to  be  dry.     Little 
is  lost  by  surface  drainage. 

4.  Moisture  is  conserved  thereby.     Where  the  sur- 
face remains  undisturbed  for  weeks  the  soil  becomes 
packed,  so  that  the  moisture  from  below  readily  passes 
to  the  surface  and  is  evaporated,  thus  being  lost  to 
the  growing  crop.     If  the  surface  is  kept  light  and 
loose  by  tillage,  so  that  the  capillarity  is  broken,  but 
little  of  the  soil  moisture  comes  to  the  surface  and 
evaporation  is  not  so  great.     In  this  way  nearly  all 
the  moisture  remains  in  the  soil,  where  it  can  be  used 
by  the  roots. 

5.  Thorough  tillage  has  a  tendency  to  cause  deeper 
rooting  of  the  roots.     The  surface  of  the  soil  is  made 
drier  by  tillage  during  the  early  part  of  the  season 
than  it  would  otherwise  be  ;  hence  the  roots  go  where 
the  soil  is  moist.      The  advantage  of  deep  rooting 
during  drought  is  obvious. 

6.  Weeds  and  grass  are  kept  out 

(51) 


52 


BIGGIE    ORCHARD   BOOK 


CULTIVATION  OF  YOUNG  TREES.— John  A.  Warder, 
in  his  book  about  apples,  says  :  "  If  the  ground,  which 
has  been  appropriated  to  the  orchard,  be  also  occupied 
as  farming-  land,  as  is  usually  done  for  a  few  years 
after  planting,  while  the  trees  are  small,  it  should  be 
exclusively  devoted  to  hoed  crops  ;  by  which  is  meant 
those  that  require  constant  cultivation  and  stirring  of 
the  soil. "  That's  the  idea,  exactly.  While  the  trees 
are  coming  into  bearing,  and  before  they  have  need 
of  all  the  land,  we  can  kill  two  birds  with  one  stone — 
i.  e.>  give  tillage  to  the  trees  and  cultivation  to  a 


STRAWBERRIES  IN   YOUNG   PEACH   ORCHARD 

marketable  crop,  all  at  one  operation.  We  can,  for 
several  years,  grow  strawberries  in  rows,  or  potatoes, 
or  some  other  cultivated  crop.  What  we  ought  not  to 
do,  is  to  grow  hay  or  any  of  the  grain  crops ;  nor 
should  we  let  the  land  grow  up  to  weeds.  If  we  do 
not  care  to  grow  any  crop  on  the  land  except  trees 
(and  some  large  orchardists  prefer  this  method) ,  we 
should  plow  the  ground  in  early  spring,  and  then  har- 
row it  regularly  every  two  weeks  until  about  August 
first, — at  which  time  some  * '  cover  crop  ' '  is  sown.  (See 
Chapter  IX.) 


CULTIVATION.      FERTILIZATION.      THINNING       53 

CULTIVATION  OF  BEARING  TREES. — It  rarely  pays 
to  attempt  the  growing  of  any  ' '  side  ' '  crop  in  an  old, 
bearing  orchard.  The  tree  roots  need — and  occupy — 
all  the  ground.  Plow  the  orchard  just  as  soon  as  the 
soil  is  dry  enough  in  the  spring.  Four  inches  deep 
is  about  right.  One  year  plow  "  up  "  to  the  tree  rows ; 
the  next  year  plow  "away. 
Always  plow  in  the  same  general 
direction.  Endeavor  to  keep  the 
surface  about  level  during  the 
growing  season.  Harrow  the 
ground  regularly  and  often. 
Stop  cultivation  about  August  THE  ACME  IS  A  GOOD 
first — later  if  season  is  dry,  ORCHARD  HARROW 
earlier  if  season  is  wet.  Seed  down  to  some  cover  crop. 

FALL -PLOWING  OF  ORCHARDS. — Some  growers 
advocate  a  second  plowing,  to  take  place  when  regu- 
lar cultivation  ceases.  They  say  :  ' '  Plow  up  to  the 
trees  so  as  to  facilitate  drainage  during  fall  and 
winter;  this  ridging -up  also  helps  to  protect  the 
roots  from  cold. ' '  In  some  soils  •  and  climates  the 
idea  is  perhaps  sound  ;  on  properly-drained  ground 
not  too  far  north,  it  seems  unnecessary.  After  August 
plowing,  the  harrow  and  the  cover  crop  should 
immediately  follow,  of  course. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR  CULTIVATION. — The  "mulch 
system ' '  has  its  advocates,  and  its  faults  and  advan- 
tages. Its  main  faults  are  :  It  furnishes  a  harboring 
place  for  mice  and  insects  ;  it  does  not  stimulate  tree 
growth,  if  growth  is  wanted ;  it  favors  fungous 
troubles.  Its  main  advantages  are :  Lessened  labor 
(which  is  somewhat  offset  by  the  necessity  of  mowing 
grass  and  weeds  which  may  push  through  the  mulch) ; 


54  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

lessened  wood  growth  (which  in  some  cases  might  be 
temporarily  desirable) . 

IRRIGATION. — In  regions  of  normal  rainfall,  arti- 
ficial watering  of  orchards  is  seldom  practised  or 
necessary.  Cultivation,  under  normal  conditions, 
conserves  sufficient  moisture  for  the  trees'  needs. 
In  California  and  some  other  states,  irrigation  is 
desirable.  Folks  who  need  to  practise  this  method 
should  write  to  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  and  ask  for  free  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  116,  entitled,  "Irrigation  in  Fruit  Growing." 


GOOD  TILLAGE,  THIS 

FERTILIZATION. — Fruit  trees  need  the  same  ele- 
ments that  are  required  by  other  crops — i.  e.,  nitrogen, 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  Nitrogen  is  particularly 
efficacious  in  promoting  growth.  In  fact,  the  amount 
of  growth  and  the  color  of  foliage  are  reliable  guides 
for  the  application  of  nitrogen.  Leaves  of  good  size 
and  dark  color,  and  a  wood  growth  of  a  foot  or  more 
on  mature  trees  in  one  season,  indicate  sufficient 
nitrogen. 

Nitrogen  is  usually  most  easily,  advantageously 
and  cheaply  applied  in  the  form  of  legume  cover  crops 
(Chapter  IX).  Prof.  Bailey,  of  Cornell,  says:  "In 


CULTIVATION.       FERTILIZATION.       THINNING       55 

orchards  which  are  thoroughly  tilled,  the  use  of  barn 
manures  (which  contain  considerable  nitrogen) ,  should 
generally  be  discouraged.  Use  tillage  and  late  green 
crops  to  supply  the  nitrogen, — except  perhaps  for  a 
season  or  two  when  an  attempt 
is  making  to  rejuvenate  a 
neglected  orchard."  One  of 
the  main  objections  to  stable 
manure  is  that  it  is  apt  to  cause 
trees  to  grow  too  late  in  the  fall. 

Potash  is  generally  the  most 
important  element  to  be  ap- 
plied directly  to  orchards,  par- 
ticularly after  the  trees  have 
reached  bearing  age.  The 
available  store  of  potash  in  the 
soil  is  much  increased  by  the 
thorough  tillage  which  has 
already  been  recommended, 
but  in  bearing  orchards  it  should  also  be  supplied 
every  year  in  some  commercial  form.  One  of  the  best 
sources  of  potash  for  orchards  is  unleached  hard-wood 
ashes.  It  gives  fruit  a  high  color.  Twenty-five  bush- 
els to  the  acre  is  a  good  dressing. 

Muriate  of  potash  is  perhaps  the  best  and  most 
reliable  form  in  which  to  secure  potash  at  the  present 
time,  says  Cornell  Bulletin  No.  72.  Commercial 
samples  generally  contain  about  fifty  per  cent,  of 
actual  potash.  Kainit  or  German  potash  salts  is  a 
muriate  of  potash  containing  about  twelve  per  cent, 
of  potash.  An  apple  orchard  in  full  bearing  and  upon 
loose  soil  may  receive  as  high  as  500  pounds  of  muri- 
ate of  potash  per  acre,  but  a  normal  and  economical 


PEACHES   WELL   THINNED. 
NO   PROPS   NEEDED   HERE.' 


56 


BIGGLE    ORCHARD    BOOK 


application  is  from  200  to  300  pounds.  Sulphate  of 
potash  is  also  thought  to  be  a  good  form  in  which 
to  buy  potash.  The  commercial  article  will  analyze 
about  fifty  per  cent,  of  actual  potash. 

Phosphoric  acid  may  be  obtained  in  the  form  of  a 
high-grade  plain  superphosphate  (dissolved  South 
Carolina  rock),  in  bone  compounds,  and  Thomas  slag. 
The  plain  superphosphate  contains  about  sixteen  or 
eighteen  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  400  to  600 
pounds  per  acre  is  a  liberal  and  very  useful  dressing 
for  bearing  orchards.  The  bone  fertilizers  are  always 
valuable.  Those  which  are  untreated  give  up  their 
phosphoric  acid  slowly,  unless  they  are  very  finely 
ground.  Dissolved  bone  gives  more  immediate  results. 
Thomas  or  basic  slag  has  given  good  results  in  many 
tests,  but  it  parts  with  its  fertility  very  slowly.  Phos- 
phoric acid  is  rather  less  important  in  fruit  plantations 
than  potash,  although  this  order  is  reversed  in  general 
farming. 


Wheat 
or 

JBeef 

42   J> 

F*-   PQ 

Fin 

Oafs 

Corn 

milk 

A  little  lesson  in  fertility :  The  size  of  these  blocks 
shows  the  comparative  quantities  of  soil  fertility 
(nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid)  removed  from 
the  farm  by  the  selling  of  various  home-grown  prod- 
ucts. The  growing  of  wheat  or  beef  draws  heaviest 
on  the  soil ;  butter  or  fruits,  lightest.  Remem- 
ber, too,  that  most  of  the  fertility  removed  by 
fruits  is  contained  in  the  seeds  or  the  pit,  —  the 


CULTIVATION.      FERTILIZATION.      THINNING      57 


fruits  themselves  are  largely 
water.  And  that  brings  us 
to  the  important  subject  of 
THINNING  FRUITS.  —  If 
we  can  annually  reduce  the 
number  of  seeds  (or  pits) 
which  a  tree  endeavors  to 
grow,  we  remove  a  great  vital 
drain  upon  the  strength  of  PEACHES  TOO  THICK  ON  THIS 
both  tree  and  soil.  We  save  EIGHTEEN-INCH  BRANCH 
fertilizer,  and  we  save  tree  vitality.  Incidentally,  we 
accomplish  equally  important  secondary  results.  By 
removing,  say,  one-half  of  the  baby  fruit  on  a  tree, 
the  remainder  is  enabled  to  grow  to  larger  and  more 
profitable  size ;  and  next  season  the  tree,  not  having 
exhausted  itself  the  previous  year,  is  in  proper  con- 
dition to  bear  another  full  crop.  In  brief,  systematic 
thinning  increases  the  value  of  the  crop,  and  helps 
to  insure  full  crops  every  year. 

The  time  to  do  the  work  is  after  the  June  drop  is 
about  over  and  before  the  seeds  or  pits  have  hardened. 
Often  it  is  necessary  to  pull  off,  by  hand,  almost  two- 
thirds  of  the  fruit  on  a  heavily  set  tree ;  yet,  strange 
as  it  may  seem  to  those  who  have  not  tried  it,  the 
remaining  one-third,  at  pick- 
ing time,  will  fill  almost  as 
many  bushels  as  the  fruit  of 
a  similar  tree  un thinned. 
Which  would  be  most  profit- 
able, ten  bushels  of  "medi- 
ums ' '  or  eight  or  nine  bushels 
of  ' '  extra  large  "  ?  It  fre- 
'  quently  pays  to  hire  help  to 

SAME  BRANCH   PROPERLY        ,         . ,      '          .          . 

THINNED  do  the  thinning. 


58  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

NOTEBOOK  JOTTINGS. 

Cultivation  should  be  shallow  —  two  or  three  inches  at  most. 
A  rope  or  handle  to  the  harrow  helps  to  guide  the  implement. 

If  you  grow  cultivated  crops  in  a  young  orchard,  never  let 
the  crop  come  closer  than  four  feet  to  any  tree  trunk. 

Many  orchardists  say :  "  Don't  plow  or  cultivate  fruit  trees 
while  they  are  in  blossom.  May  cause  the  embryo  fruit  to  drop." 

When  applying  fertilizer,  remember  that  a  tree's  root  area  is 
usually  as  large  around,  or  larger,  than  its  top  area.  Don't  pile 
tree  food  around  the  trunk, —  spread  it  farther  out. 

Use  a  one-horse  plow  for  the  first  two  or  three  rounds  along 
a  tree  row.  Do  this  to  all  the  rows.  Then  change  to  a  two-horse 
plow,  and  finish  the  job.  This  makes  easier,  closer  work. 

If  you  decide  to  mulch,  do  it  right.  Don't  permit  yourself 
to  mow  the  grass  which  pushes  through  the  mulch,  and  then 
remove  the  clippings.  I,et  the  mowed  grass  lie  en  the  mulch. 

Why  should  cultivation  usually  cease  about  August  first? 
So  as  to  all©w  the  new  growth  to  stop  growing  and  harden  up  in 
proper  mature  condition  for  the  winter.  The  new  wood  on  late 
cultivated  trees  is  more  apt  to  winter-kill. 

Muzzle  the  horses  when  plowing  or  cultivating  around  trees. 
Yes,  and  don't  forget  to  pad  the  outer  end  of  each  whiffletree. 
Pad  the  outer  edges  of  the  harrow,  too.  But  if  a  tree  is  acciden- 
tally "  barked,"  bandage  the  wound  with  cow  manure  and  burlap. 

Rules  for  thinning  fruit :  Remove  all  wormy,  crooked  or 
otherwise  inferior  specimens.  Only  the  best  specimen  in  each 
cluster  should  be  allowed  to  remain.  Remaining  fruits  should 
not  be  closer  together  than  five  or  six  inches  apart.  Properly 
thinned  trees  need  no  props. 

lyearn  how  to  harrow  an  orchard  so  as  to  cover  practically  all 
the  ground.  Harrow  lengthwise  one  time,  crosswise  another 
time,  and  diagonally  the  third  time  ;  then  repeat.  A  careful 
driver  will  thus  leave  only  a  few  inches  of  untouched  ground 
around  each  tree  trunk— and  a  hand  hoe  easily  finishes  that. 

Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  "seed  down"  to  grass,  for  a 
year  or  so,  a  thrifty,  well-grown  pear,  apple  or  cherry  orchard. 
Plum,  peach  or  dwarf  pear,  never.  And,  in  any  case,  such  a 
course  is  seldom  best  until  the  trees  have  reached  the  bearing 
age;  then,  a  temporary  seeding  down  maybe  beneficial, — first, 
because  it  may  induce  quicker  fruitfulness  by  checking  growth  ; 
or,  second,  it  may  prevent  the  bark-burst  or  pear  blight  which  a 
too  rapid  growth  sometimes  promotes. 


PLATE  VI 


SPRAYED  FRUIT 


NOT  SPRAYED 


CHAPTER  VII. 


SPRAYING. 


Spray,  farmers,  s£ray  with  care, 
Spray  the  apple,  Peach  and  Pear ; 
Spray  for  scab,  and  spray  for  blight, 
Spray,  oh  spray,  and  do  it  right. 

Yes,    that's    the    entire    secret — "Do  it  right!" 

Every  year  there  is  a  great  deal  of  spraying  that  does 

very  little  good.     Many  individuals  go  through  the 

operation  and  simply  waste  time  and  money.  I  have 
!  observed  that  unless  the  operator  is  very  careful  there 
!  will  be  fruits  and  even  large  areas  on  the  trees,  left 

unsprayed.     In  many  cases  the  operator  sprays  the 

lower  limbs  of  the  trees  heav-     ^ 

ily,  but  the  topmost  twigs,  and 

even  the  centre,  are  left  dry, 

and    then    he    wonders    why 

spraying    does    not     produce 

better  results. 

If  you  are  a  fruit-grower  — 

actual   or  prospective  —  make 

up  your  mind  to  the  fact  that 

a  good  spraying  outfit  is  just 

as  important  to  your  success 

as  a  plow  or  a  pruning  saw. 

The  kind  of  an  outfit  which 

you  require  depends,  of  course, 

on  the  size  of  your  orchard.  If 

C-e  only  a  few  trees,  of 
(59) 


FOR  A  FEW  TREES,  NOT 
TOO    LARGE,   THIS  COM- 
PRESSED-AIR   SPRAYER 
IS  ALL  RIGHT 


60 


BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 


medium  size,  perhaps  one  of  the  new-style,  com- 
pressed-air, shoulder-strap  sprayers  (sold  by  seeds- 
men and  implement  dealers)  will  answer  the  purpose. 
Or  if  the  trees  are  large  or  numerous,  you  may  require 

a  barrel  or  tank 
outfit,  mounted  on 
the  farm  wagon 
and  worked  by 
hand ;  or  perhaps 
your  require- 
ments may  neces- 
sitate one  of  the 
power  outfits 
which  are  oper- 
ated by  either  a 
gasoline  engine, 
geared  connec- 
tion with  wagon 
wheels,  or  compressed  gas  in  cylinders. 

Before  deciding  upon  a  pump,  or  buying  one,  take 
a  bit  of  the  same  advice  that  Harriet  once  gave  to 
me :  * '  Write  to  advertisers  in  the  Farm  Journal  or 
other  farm  papers,  get  their  catalogs  and  price  lists, 
and  then  study,  compare,  and  decide." 

A  good  pump  should  work  easily,  maintain  a 
steady  spray  from  one  or  several  nozzles,  be  simple 
in  construction,  have  non-corrosive  brass  working 
parts,  be  durable  and  able  to  stand  hard  use,  be 
easily  taken  to  pieces  for  repair,  have  pipes  properly 
arranged  to  prevent  clogging,  and  be  provided  with 
an  agitator  which  keeps  the  solution  in  vigorous 
motion  and  thoroughly  distributed.  Judging  a  pump 


POWER  SPRAYING    FOR  LARGE 
ORCHARDS 


SPRAYING  61 

by  cheapness  alone  often  proves  poor  economy.     For 

a  very  finely  divided  spray  the  Vermorel  nozzle  seems 

the  best  of  any  tested  at  the  Station,  says  F.  H.  Hall, 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and  that  form  should  be  chosen  which 

is  provided  with  a  joint  between 

nozzle  chamber  and  elbow,  to 

allow    easy    access    in    case   of 

clogging.     The     Non-clog,     the 

Mistry  and  several  other  nozzles, 

are  also  popular,   either  in  the 

single,    double    or    triple    form. 

A  light  bamboo  pole,  enclosing 

a    brass    tube    and    fitted    with 

proper    connections,    seems    the  SU?TED  ?o  ^Emu-szE 

lightest  and  simplest    means  for  ORCHARDS 

raising  the  nozzles;   this  with  a  light  framework  tower 

erected  in  the  wagon  or  cart  upon  which  the  operator 

may  stand,  will  usually  afford  sufficient  elevation  for 

even  tall  trees. 

Spraying  mixtures  are  divided  into  two  classes : 
Fungicides  and  insecticides.  Often,  however,  it  is 
practicable  to  unite  the  two  into  one  spray — and  thus 
fight  both  fungus  and  insects  at  the  one  operation. 
A  mixture  of  Bordeaux  solution  and  an  arsenical 
poison,  is  a  good  example  of  such  a  combination. 
Bordeaux  mixture  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  useful 
of  all  known  fungicides  for  general  use. 

BORDEAUX  MIXTURE. — Three  pounds  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  four  pounds  of  quicklime,  fifty  gallons 
of  water.  First,  dissolve  the  copper  sulphate.  The 
easiest,  quickest  way  to  do  this,  is  to  put  it  into  a 
coarse  cloth  bag  and  suspend  the  bag  in  a  receptacle 


62 


BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 


MAKING  BORDEAUX 


partly  filled  with  water.  Next,  slake  the  lime  in  a 
tub,  and  strain  the  milk  of  lime  thus  obtained  into 
another  receptacle.  Now  get 
someone  to  help  you,  and,  with 
buckets,  simultaneously  pour 
the  two  liquids  into  the  spray- 
ing barrel  or  tank.  Lastly,  add 
sufficient  water  to  make  fifty 
gallons.  ( For  making  this  mixture  on  a  large  scale, 
an  elevated  platform — with  pipes,  etc.,  as  shown  in 
cut — is  very  handy.)  'Tis  safe  to  use  this  full- 
strength  Bordeaux  on  almost 
all  foliage, — except  on  peach  ™™™* 
trees,  Japanese  plums,  and 
similar  tender  trees.  For 
these  it  is  wiser  to  use  the 
following  half-strength  mix- 
ture : 

T,     t.      A  ELEVATED  PLANT  FOR 

Half-strength     Bordeaux:    MAKING  BORDEAUX  ON  A 
One     and     one-half     pounds  LARGE  SCALE 

copper  sulphate,  two  pounds  lime,  fifty  gallons  water. 

BORDEAUX  COMBINED  WITH  INSECT  POISON. — By 
adding  one-quarter  pound  of  Paris  green  to  each  fifty 
gallons  of  either  of  the  Bordeaux  formulas,  the  mix- 
ture becomes  a  combined  fungicide  and  insecticide. 
Or,  instead  of  Paris  green,  add  about  two  pounds  of 
arsenate  of  lead.  The  advantages  of  this  over  Paris 
green,  are,  first,  it  is  not  apt  to  burn  foliage  even  if 
used  in  rather  excessive  quantities;  and,  second,  it 
"sticks"  to  the  foliage,  etc.,  better  and  longer.  It  is 
the  best  form  in  which  to  use  arsenical  poison. 

(Note:  Seedsmen  sell  ready-prepared  forms  of  most 
of  the  mixtures,  etc.,  mentioned  in  this  book.) 


SPRAYING  63 

A  NEW  FUNGICIDE. — Some  orchardists  are  now 
using  the  following  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  spray  (or, 
sometimes,  a  very  dilute  form  of  ordinary  lime-sul- 
phur,— see  page  66),  claiming  that  it  is  less  liable  to 
spot  or  burn  fruit  and  foliage: 

Put  eight  pounds  unslaked  lump  lime  in  a  barrel; 
add  enough  water  to  cover.  When  the  lime  begins  to 
heat,  throw  in  eight  pounds  of  flowers  of  sulphur. 
Constantly  stir  and  gradually  pour  on  more  water  un- 
til the  lime  is  all  slaked;  then  add  the  rest  of  the 
water  to  cool  the  mixture.  About  fifty  gallons  of 
water,  in  all,  are  required.  Strain. 

Two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  added,  if 
desired,  to  the  finished  mixture,  which  then  becomes 
a  combined  fungicide  and  insecticide,  and  may  be  used 
in  the  same  manner  as  advised  for  Bordeaux-arsenate 
of  lead. 

(Special  note:  The  self-boiled  mixture  is  not  the 
same  as  the  lime-sulphur  advised  for  San  Jose  scale, 
which  is  too  strong  for  trees  in  foliage.) 

FOR  SUCKING  INSECTS. — Now  we  come  to  a  class 
of  insecticides  suited  to  insects  which  suck  a  tree's 
juices  but  do  not  chew.  Arsenic  will  not  kill  such 
pests;  therefore  we  must  resort  to  the  following  solu- 
tions which  kill  by  contact  : 

Kerosene  emulsion:  One-half  pound  of  hard  or 
one  quart  of  soft  soap;  kerosene,  two  gallons;  boiling 
soft  water,  one  gallon.  If  hard  soap  is  used,  slice  it 
fine  and  dissolve  in  water  by  boiling;  add  the  boiling 
solution  (away  from  the  fire)  to  the  kerosene,  and  stir 
or  violently  churn  for  from  five  to  eight  minutes, 
until  the  mixture  assumes  a  creamy  consistency.  If 


64  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

a  spray  pump  is  at  hand,  pump  the  mixture  back  upon 
itself  with  considerable  force  for  about  five  minutes. 
Keep  this  as  a  stock.  It  must  be  further  diluted  with 
soft  water  before  using.  One  part  of  emulsion  to 
fifteen  parts  of  water,  is  about  right  for  lice. 

Whale-oil  soap  solution  :  Dissolve  one  pound  of 
whale-oil  soap  in  a  gallon  of  hot  water,  and  dilute 
with  about  six  gallons  of  cold  water.  This  is  a  good 
application  for  the  young  lice  of  the  oyster-shell  and 
scurfy  scale  (see  Chapter  VIII) ,  or  for  aphis. 

Tobacco  tea:  This  solution  may  be  prepared  by 
placing  five  pounds  of  tobacco  stems  in  a  water-tight 
vessel,  and  then  covering  them  with  three  gallons  of 
hot  water.  Allow  to  stand  several  hours ;  dilute  the 
liquor  by  adding  about  seven  gallons  of  water.  Strain 
and  apply.  Good  for  lice  (aphis)  on  foliage. 

SPECIAL  REMARKS. —  No  attempt  has  been  made 
in  this  chapter  to  cover  the  various  fungous  troubles 
and  insect  pests  which  do  damage  to  orchards  and 
fruit, — such  topics  being  more  appropriately  treated 
in  the  chapters  on  The  Apple,  The  Pear,  etc.  There 
you  will  find  special  directions  which  fit  the  special 
pests  which  prey  on  each  kind  of  fruit.  Scale  insects 
have  a  chapter  all  to  themselves. 

Tim  wants  me  to  say  that  fungicides  are  not  cures, 
but  preventives.  "  Therefore, "  he  concludes,  "the 
early  bird  catches  the  germ."  By  which  he  means, 
of  course,  that  the  sprayer  should  begin  early  in  the 
season, —  before  fungous  trouble  has  really  begun. 
"  Yes, "  adds  Harriet,  "  and  he  should  repeat  the  good 
work  several  times,  at  intervals  two  or  three  weeks 
apart." 


SPRAYING  65 

HEIyPFUI,  HINTS. 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  best  when  used  a  few  hours  after  being 
mixed. 

After  spraying,  pump  air  or  water  through  the  pump  and 
hose  to  clean  them  of  the  mixture,  so  that  it  shall  not  needlessly 
corrode  them. 

All  spraying  mixtures  should  be  constantly  agitated  when  in 
use.  If  this  is  not  done,  some  of  the  ingredients  (particularly 
Paris  green)  are  apt  to  settle  to  bottom  of  tank  or  barrel. 

A  properly  thrown  spray  is  a  fine  mist,  like  steam ;  it 
shouldn't  be  a  fall  of  raindrops.  It  should  settle  on  a  tree  like 
dew,  and  there  need  be  very  little  "drip"  upon  the  ground. 

Never  spray  trees  while  they  are  in  blossom.  No  need  to  do 
it,  and  it  would  kill  the  orchardist's  best  friend  — the  bees. 
Without  bees,  blossoms  would  not  be  properly  cross-fertilized. 

Don't  try  to  cover  all  sides  of  a  large  tree  at  one  operation. 
Take  one  side  along  the  row,  then  when  the  wind  is  favorable 
come  back  on  the  other  side  (for  lack  of  this  precaution  many 
trees  are  half-dead  on  that  "other"  side). 

If  rain  falls  immediately  after  an  application,  it  must  be 
repeated  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  fairly  dry  again.  But  if  the 
mixture  once  gets  dried  on  the  foliage  it  may  adhere  fairly  well 
in  spite  of  rains.  Some  mixtures  stick  and  last  much  better 
than  others. 

A  few  fruit-growers  favor  the  dust  method  of  spraying. 
Instead  of  liquids  they  use  powdered  forms  of  insecticides  and 
fungicides,  blown  into  the  trees  by  means  of  special  apparatus. 
The  idea  doubtless  has  some  good  points,  but  a  liquid  spray 
seems  to  suit  most  folks  best. 

A.  W.  Cheever  tells  in  Farm  Journal  of  a  contrivance  that 
will  be  a  boon  to  the  man  who  holds  the  sprayer  rod, — consisting 


of  an  extension  to  prevent  the  liquid  getting  on  the  hands.  The 
pipe  has  a  rod  attached  set  off  about  four  inches,  for  grasping  by 
the  hands.  This  does  not  get  wet  as  does  the  tube. 


66  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

will  not  be  necessary  to  strain  the  Bordeaux  mixture  itself. 
Some  very  good  strainers  made  of  copper  are  011  the  market  and 
may  be  obtained  from  the  makers  of  spray  pumps.  One  of  the 
best,  which  can  be  made  at  home,  is  in  the  form  of  a  box. 

In  place  of  the  self-boiled  mixture,  a  number  of  orchardists 
are  trying  dilute  forms  of  the  concentrated  lime-sulphur  men- 
tioned in  Chapter  VIII.  A  dilution  of  one  part  concentrate  to 
about  thirty  parts  water  is  thought  safe.  (For  peach  trees,  the 
self-boiled  mixture  is  safer,  I  think.) 

Here  is  a  picture  of  a  disc-shaped  spray- 
ing-rod shield.  'Tis  a  handy  little  contriv- 
ance for  preventing-  the  spray-drip  from  run- 
ning- down  the  rod  on  to  the  hands.  Can  be 
made  of  metal  or  wood,  tightly  fitted. 

It  has  been  established  that  in  the  case  of  the  apple  crop, 
spraying  will  protect  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the 
fruit,  which  would  otherwise  be  wormy,  and  that  in  actual 
marketing  experience  the  price  has  been  enhanced  from  $1  to 
$2.50  per  barrel,  and  this  at  a  cost  cf  only  about  ten  cents  per 
tree  for  labor  and  material. 

In  the  case  of  one  orchard  in  Virginia,  only  one-third  of 
which  was  sprayed,  the  result  was  an  increase  in  the  yield  of 
sound  fruit  in  the  portion  treated,  of  nearly  fifty  per  cent.,  and 
an  increase  of  the  value  of  this  fruit,  over  the  rest,  of  one 
hundred  per  cent.  The  loss  from  not  having  treated  the  other 
two-thirds  was  estimated  at  $2,500. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  most  spraying  materials  are 
poisonous  and  should  be  so  labeled.  If  ordinary  precautions  are 
taken  there  is  no  danger,  to  man  or  team,  attending  their  appli- 
cation. The  wetting,  which  can  not  entirely  be  avoided,  is  not  at 
all  dangerous,  on  account  of  the  great  dilution  of  the  mixture. 
Nor  is  properly  sprayed  fruit  unsafe  to  eat. 

In  large  orchards  much  time  may  be  saved  by  preparing  and 
keeping  on  hand  separate  stock  solutions  of  the  lime  and  copper, 
instead  of  constantly  making  up  a  new  batch.  Dissolve  forty 
pounds  of  copper  sulphate  in  as  many  gallons  of  water.  A  gallon 
of  the  solution  will  thus  contain  one  pound  of  the  copper  salt. 
In  a  similar  way  a  stock  solution  of  lime  may  be  prepared.  Keep 
both  solutions  tightly  covered  and  thoroughly  stir  before  dipping 
from  either.  It  is  then  a  very  simple  matter  to  take  three  gal- 
lons of  the  copper  solution,  four  of  the  lime,  and  dilute  to  the 
requisite  amount— according  to  the  regulation  Bordeaux  formula. 


PLATE    VII 

EFFECTS  OF  LEAF-BLIGHT 
ON  PEAR  AND  LEAF 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


SCALE    PESTS:    SAN    JOSE,    OYSTER    SHELL, 
SCURFY,    ETC. 


If  hogs  or  cattle  could  multiply  cs  fast  as  scale  lice,  human 
beings  would  soon  be  crowded  off  the  earth. — Dorothy  Tucker. 

The  most  serious  insect  pest  which  confronts  the 
orchardist  of  today,  is  undoubtedly  the  San  Jose  scale 
louse.  It  came  to  this  country  on  nursery  stock  from 
Japan,  and  first  took  root  in  San  Jose,  Cal.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  it  was  brought  east  to  New  Jersey  about 
twenty-five  years  ago,  and  it  has  spread  until  now  it 
menaces  the  larger  part  of  the  United  States. 

In  a  single  season  a  female  may  become  the  pro- 
genitor of  1,608,040,200  individuals.  The  louse  hides 
under  a  scale  that  is  impervious  to  most  insecticides. 

It  attacks  all  orchard 
trees,  roses,  small  fruit 
bushes,  and  many  lawn 
shrubs  and  vines. 

The  louse  can  crawl  rap- 
idly, and  is  often  carried  by 
birds,  insects  and  heavy 
winds. 

The  insects  are  too  small 
to  be  easily  seen  with  the 
naked  eye,  but  the  scale  can 
be  seen.  Bark  of  affected  trees  has  a  grayish  or  ashy 
appearance,  in  bad  cases.  It  is  the  louse  and  not  the 
scale  that  does  the  harm. 

(67) 


ADULT  FEMALE  SAN  JOSE 
SCALE  WITH  YOUNG 

(ENLARGED, AS  SEEN 
THROUGH  A  MAGNIFYING 

GLASS) 


68  BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

Now  search  all  of  your  sick  trees,  and  here  is  a 
description  that  will  help  you :  The  San  Jose  scale 
is  rather  flat,  round,  pressed  close  to  the  bark,  and 
often  is  grayish,  or  resembles  the  bark  of  the  twig  in 
color ;  when  fully  grown  is  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  At  or  near  the  middle  of  each  scale 
is  a  small,  round,  slightly  elongated,  black  point 
or  nipple.  Badly  infected  trees  are  covered  so 
thickly  that  the  bark  is  completely  hidden.  Such 
trees  must  be  destroyed  or  severely  pruned  and 
thoroughly  sprayed.  A  magnifying  glass  (the  Farm 
Journal  folks  sell  a  good  one  for  fifty  cents)  should  be 
a  part  of  every  modern  orchardist's  equipment.  Now 
remember  :  A  round^  dark  scale  with  a  central  dot  or 
nipple.  That's  the  idea,  in  a  nutshell.  (When  found 
on  the  fruit,  each  scale  is  usually  surrounded  by  a 
reddish  ring.  See  colored  plate  VII.) 

The  best  time  to  fight  the  San  Jose  is  in  the  early 
spring  while  the  leaves  are  off  and  before  the  buds 
swell,  but  if  your  trees  are  badly  scaled  over,  and 
half  dead,  it  will  never  pay  to  try  to  save  such  trees ; 
dig  them  up  at  once  and  burn  every  vestige  of  them. 
Do  not  lose  a  day  in  this ;  now  is  the  word.  Near 
every  badly  affected  tree  will  be  found  other  trees  that 
show  the  scale  to  the  close  observer ;  these  may  be 
left  standing  until  winter.  Then,  soon  after  the 
leaves  drop,  spray  the  trees ;  and,  if  you  wish  to  be 
thorough,  follow  this  with  a  second  spraying  in  early 
spring  before  the  buds  open. 

Since  the  Farm  Journal,  a  number  of  years  ago, 
brought  the  lime-sulphur  spray  to  the  attention 
of  fruit-growers  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  many 


PESTS  69 

other  things  have  been  tried,  but  to  little  purpose. 
The  same  lime-sulphur  mixture  is  still  the  sovereign 
remedy  on  the  Pacific  coast,  no  other  material  being 
used  there  to  any  extent  as  a  scale  spray;  and  else- 
where in  the  United  States  it  is  the  best  thing  yet 
found.  It  is  effective  wherever  used,  if  directions  are 
followed,  and  it  is  safer  to  use  than  the  oil  remedies 
sometimes  recommended. 


AN  ILLINOIS  LIME-SULPHUR  OUTFIT.      STEAM- 
COOKING  IN  ELEVATED  BARRELS 

Formula  for  making  the  lime-sulphur  spray:  Slake 
twenty- two  pounds  of  fresh  lump  lime  in  the  vessel  in 
which  the  mixture  is  to  be  boiled,  using  only  enough 
water  to  cover  the  lime.  Add  seventeen  pounds  of 
sulphur  (flowers  or  powdered),  having  previously 
mixed  it  in  a  paste  with  water.  Then  boil  the  mixture 
for  about  an  hour  in  about  ten  gallons  of  water,  using 
an  iron  but  not  a  copper  vessel.  Next  add  enough 
more  water  to  make,  in  all,  fifty  gallons.  Strain 
through  wire  sieve  or  netting,  and  apply  while  mixture 
is  still  warm.  A  good  high-pressure  pump  is  essential 
to  satisfactory  work.  Coat  every  particle  of  the  tree. 


70  BIGGLE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

Concentrated  lime-sulphur:  Several  good  ready- 
prepared  mixtures  are  now  on  the  market,  and  are 
successfully  used  by  orchardists  who  do  not  care  to 
bother  with  home  mixing.  These  commercial  mixtures 
merely  need  diluting  with  about  eight  parts  of  cold 
water,  and  are  then  ready  to  use;  thus  they  prove 
very  convenient  for  the  man  who  has  only  a  few  trees, 
or  who  does  not  mind  the  slightly  greater  cost  of  the 
factory  product. 

Caution:  The  lime-sulphur  mixtures  given  in  this 
chapter  must  not  be  applied  to  trees  that  are  in 
foliage;  use  on  dormant  trees,  only. 

The  month  of  March  is  the  best  month  in  which  to 
spray,  if  only  one  application  is  given.  But  often- 
times the  work  can  be  done  in  February  to  better  ad- 
vantage. Some  orchardists  spray  twice, — in  the  fall 
after  the  leaves  drop,  and  again  in  the  early  spring. 

Summer  or  early  fall  spraying  with  one  pound  of 
whale-oil  soap  dissolved  in  five  or  six  gallons  of  water, 
may  help  to  hold  the  San  Jose  scale  lice  in  check  until 
late  fall  or  early  spring  applications  of  the  lime-sul- 
phur mixture  can  be  made.  Whale-oil  soap  solution 
will  not  hurt  foliage.  Or  try  the  self-boiled  or  mild 
form  lime-sulphur  mentioned  in  Chapter  VII. 

George  T.  Powell,  of  New  York  State,  says  that  he 
is  getting  interesting  results  in  an  attempt  to  dwarf 
standard  trees.  They  are  kept  low  headed.  He  prunes 
them  in  July  to  check  the  growth, — cutting  them  well 
back ;  then  in  September  when  growth  has  practically 
ceased,  he  prunes  off  any  shoots  which  have  started 
since  July, — thus  leaving  only  the  sound  mature  wood 
to  go  through  the  winter.  He  has  nearly  1,000  trees 


SCALE  PESTS.  71 

three  years  old  that  have  had  this  treatment  for  two 
years.  The  Rome  Beauty  has  set  apples  freely  this, 
the  third  year,  which  he  has  taken  off,  but  there  is  a 
large  development  of  fruit  spurs  and  fruit  buds  for 
next  year.  For  this  treatment,  the  soil  must  be  good, 
culture  the  best,  with  heavy  thinning  of  the  fruit, 
which  means  practically  No.  1  and  fancy  apples  only 
grown  on  such  trees.  He  thinks  that  he  can  keep, 
under  the  treatment,  standard  trees  about  twenty  feet 
high  for  many  years.  His  idea  is  that  the  old  high 
trees  will  all  pass  out  rapidly  through  the  ravages  of 
the  scale  louse,  and  that  the  smaller  trees  must  replace 
them  because  of  greater  ease  and  effectiveness  in 
spraying. 

I  think  friend  Powell  is  on  the  right  track.  Low- 
headed,  low-pruned,  apple  and  pear  trees — if  success 
is  to  be  achieved  in  the  future.  With  low  trees  and 
thorough  spraying,  no  one  need  greatly  fear  San 
Jose. 

OYSTER-SHELL  BARK-L,OUSE. — The  most  common 
scale-insect  of  the  apple,  without  doubt,  is  the  oyster- 
shell  bark-louse.  Although  everywhere 
present,  and  sometimes  quite  conspicu- 
ous, it  most  often  attacks  trees  that  for 
some  reason  are  unhealthy,  and  there- 
fore poorly  fitted  to  support  the  extra 
drain  put  upon  them  by  the  pest. 

The  scales  of  these  insects  are  elon-  OYSTER-SHELL 
gated,    shaped  something  like  oyster-    BA^J§r8E 
shells,  with  the  cast  skins  at  the  smaller     FULL  SIZE) 
ends.     They  are  brown  in  color.      Underneath  a  scale 
will   be   found   a  cluster  of  yellowish-whitish  eggs, 


72  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

plainly  to  be  seen  through  an  ordinary  magnifying 
glass.  The  scales  are  about  one-eighth  inch  in 
length,  or  smaller,  and  they  usually  cluster  together 
as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  page  71. 

About  the  middle  of  May  (later  or  earlier,  according 
to  latitude)  the  eggs  under  the  scales  hatch  into  tiny 
lice  which  appear  as  mere  specks  to  the  unaided  eye. 
These  lice,  for  a  few  days,  move  around  on  the  bark. 
Remedies  :  First,  give  the  tree  a  tonic  and  a  good 
rub-down.  Fertilizers,  pruning  and  cultivation  will 
help  the  tree  to  better  general  health ;  and  a  brisk 
scrubbing  of  trunk  and  main  limbs  with  a  very  stiff 
brush  or  scraper,  will  get  rid  of  many  of  the  scales. 
An  old  broom  with  the  brush  cut  short  makes  an 
excellent  scrubbing  implement.  Keep  it  wet  with 
whale-oil  soap  solution.  Then,  sometime  in  May, 
watch  for  the  hatched-out  lice.  When  they  appear, 
get  out  the  spray  pump  and  thoroughly  spray  the 
entire  tree  with  whale-oil  soap  solution,  made  as 
follows :  Dissolve  one  pound  of  whale-oil  soap  in  a 
gallon  of  hot  water,  and  dilute  with  about 
six  gallons  of  cold  water.  (Note  :  The  oyster- 
shell  louse  is  especially  fond  of  the  lilac. ) 

SCURFY  BARK-LOUSE. —  Another  scale 
insect,  that  may  be  classed  with  the  oyster- 
shell    bark-louse    so    far    as    its    economic 
SCURFY     importance  is  concerned,  is  the  scurfy  bark- 
SCALE      louse  of  the  pear  and  apple.     This  scale  is 
NATURAL   white  in  color,  and,  like  the  oyster-shell  pest, 
SIZE)       is  most  apt  to  work  on  poorly  fertilized  and 
poorly  cultivated  trees.     The  scurfy  scale  is  readily 
recognized    on    account    of    its    whitish,    cotton-like 


SCALE  PESTS  73 

appearance,  and  its  oblong  shape.  The  eggs  beneath 
the  scales  are  in  clusters,  purplish  in  color,  and  they 
hatch  out  about  the  same  time  as  the  oyster-shell  eggs. 

Remedies :  Same  as  for  oyster-shell  bark-louse. 
(Special  note  :  There  is  no  better  remedy  for  all  scale 
insects,  than  strong  lime-sulphur  spray.  Those  who 
use  it  on  their  trees  in  the  winter,  are  all  right.  But 
when  tree  growth  is  beginning,  it  is  better  to  fight 
oyster-shell  and  scurfy  bark-lice  with  whale-oil  solu- 
tion. Or  kerosene  emulsion  may  be  used.) 

OTHER  SCALE  PESTS. — A  variety  called  the  "plum 
scale ' '  is  sometimes  found  on  plum  trees  (and  occa- 
sionally on  quince,  apple,  pear,  cherry  and  peach 
trees) .  Of  this  scale  pest  Prof.  Slingerland  says : 
"They  remind  one  of  small  halved  peas  colored  dark 
brown  and  stuck  on  the  branches. ' '  They  belong  to 
the  scale  family  named  Lecaniums,  which  includes  the 
"  terrapin  scale,"  the  "  apricot  scale,"  and  so  forth. 

Olive  and  citrus  fruit-growers  in  California,  Florida, 
etc.,  have  a  long  list  of  scale  troubles  of  their  own. 
The  same  remedies  advocated  for  other  scale  pests 
will  prove  equally  successful  when  applied  to  the 
plum  or  citrus  or  olive  scales. 

FOOT  NOTES. 

Concentrated  lime-sulphur  similar  to  commercial  solutions 
may  be  made  at  home,  if  desired.  Get  formula  from  your  State 
Experiment  Station. 

Ladybirds  are  among  the  most  active  destroyers  of  scale 
insects,  and  the  most  abundant  of  these  beetles  is  the  twice- 
stabbed  ladybird. 

All  dead  wood  and  thick  brush  should  be  cut  out  before 
attempting  to  spray;  and  all  branches  that  are  too  high  to  reach 
and  cover  with  the  spray  liquid  should  also  be  cut  off. 


74 


BIGGLE    ORCHARD   BOOK 


Protect  the  hands  by  coating  them  with  vaseline  or  by  wear- 
ing gloves — rubber  being  the  least  injured  by  the  lime-sulphur 
spray.  Cover  the  horses.  Spray  only  v/ith  the  wind,  if  it  be  too 
strong  to  spray  against  it.  It  is  impossible  to  throw  the  spray 
satisfactorily  against  a  very  strong  breeze. 

Special  note:  Many  folks  do  not  fully  realize  that  strong  lime- 
sulphur  spray  is  a  splendid  fungicide  as  well  as  a  louse-killer. 
Therefore  its  use  may  take  the  place  of  the  earlier  Bordeaux 
applications,  before  the  buds  have  opened.  For  later  fungous 
sprays,  use  Bordeaux,  or  the  mild  self-boiled  lime-sulphur. 

A   fifty-gallon  barrel  makes  a 

very  convenient  unit  for  even  the 

most    extensive    spraying    opera- 
tions, says  M.  B.  Waite.      Here  is    •- 

a  plan  of  a  lime-sulphur  boiling   5 

plant  of  six  barrels,  rather  similar  | 

to  the  model  of  J.  H.  Hale.    (Fig-.  I  5 

shows  general  view ;  fig.  II  shows 

details  of  one  barrel.)     The  boiler 

rests  on  the  ground,  the  barrels 

and  the  water-supply  pipe  on  an 

elevated  platform  about  eight  feet 

from  the  ground.  The  outlet  is  terminated  by  about 
three  feet  of  flexible  hose,  through  which  the  finished 
mixture  can  be  piped  to  the  wagon  tank  as  wanted. 
The  steam  is  conducted  directly  into  the  bottom  of 
each  barrel,  escaping  into  the  liquid  through  the  per- 
forated crosspieces,  and  then  bubbling  up  and  out. 
The  water  inlet  and  outlet  pipes  have  no  connection, 

••  WATER  INLET    of  course,  with  the  steam  pipes.     Stop-cocks  should 
FIG.  IT.     be  located  as  shown  —  fifteen  in  all.     (A  scientific 
BARREL    frien(j  of   mine  suggests  that  a  steam  coil  in  the 
bottom  of  each  barrel,  through  which  steam  could 

pass  and  then  return  to  the  boiler,  would  be  more  economical  of 

steam  and  of  fuel.     He  says  that  it's  wasteful  to  allow  the  steam 

to  escape  in  the  barrels. — J.  B.) 


FIG.  I.      HALF'S  STEAM 
COOKER 


PLATE  VIII 


YORK 

IMPERIAL 


NORTHERN 
SPY 


CHAPTER  IX. 


COVER  CROPS. 
WINTER  AND  SPRING  CARE. 


Orchards,  as  -well  as  folks,  need  winter  overcoats. — John  Tucker. 

The  seven  important  advantages  of  a  cover  crop 
in  the  orchard  are :  1st,  to  supply  nitrogen  and 
organic  matter  or  humus  to  the  soil ;  2d,  to  improve 
the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  i.  e. ,  to  lighten 
a  heavy  soil  or  make  a  light  soil  more  retentive  of 
moisture  ;  3d,  to  protect  the  roots  from  being  injured 
by  deep  freezing ;  4th,  to  prevent  the  fine  particles  of 
soil  and  plant  food  from  being  washed  away  during 
the  fall,  winter  and  spring ;  5th,  to  catch  and  hold 
snow  and  leaves ;  6th,  to  help  check  late  growth  of 
trees  in  the  fall,  and  thus  aid  wood  growth  to  harden 
up  for  winter ;  and,  7th,  to  pump  the  surplus  water 
out  of  the  soil  in  early  spring  so  that  the  ground  may 
sooner  get  into  condition  for  plowing. 

An  orchard  cover  crop  is  a  crop  sown  to  cover  the 
ground  during  that  portion  of  the  year  when  very 
little  or  not  any  growth  is  being  made  by  fruit  trees. 
If  a  man  makes  no  effort  to  cover  the  ground  with 
economic  plants,  then  Nature  steps  in  and  starts 
weeds  and  grass  in  the  endeavor  to  protect  the  soil. 
Cover  crops  are  usually  sown  just  before  the  last 
cultivation  of  an  orchard — about  August  first.  Some- 
times as  early  as  July,  or  as  late  as  early  September. 

There  are  practically  two  classes  of  plants  which 
the  orchardist  may  use  for  the  purpose  of  securing 

(75) 


76  BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 

a  cover  crop,  says  John  Craig,  Cornell  Experiment 
Station,  New  York.  These  are  :  the  nitrogenous  class 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  non-nitrogenous  class  on  the 
other.  The  difference  between  these  two  is  marked 
by  the  power  of  the  plants  of  the  nitrogenous  class  to 
appropriate  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  store  it 
up  in  their  tissues  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  more  or  less 
readily  available  to  the  succeeding  crops.  Prominent 
among  plants  which  have  this  property  are  the  clovers, 
peas,  beans  and  vetches.  These  are  the  farmers' 
friends  —  the  ' '  nitrogen  collectors. ' ' 

Prof.  C.  P.  Close,  Delaware,  says: — "The  amounts 
of  seed  per  acre,  and  crop  or  combination  of  crops 
which  may  be  used,  are  about  as  follows :  Rye,  one  to 
one  and  one-half  bushels ;  cowhorn  turnips,  one  to 
two  pounds  ;  dwarf  Essex  rape,  eight  to  ten  pounds  ; 
red,  mammoth  or  crimson  clover,  fifteen  to  twenty 
pounds ;  cowpeas,  ninety  pounds ;  soy  beans,  ninety 
pounds ;  hairy  vetch,  forty  to  fifty  pounds ;  hairy 
vetch,  forty  pounds,  and  rye,  thirty  pounds;  hairy 
vetch,  twenty  pounds,  and  cowpeas  or  soy  beans, 
forty-five  pounds ;  hairy  vetch,  twenty  pounds,  and 
turnips,  twelve  ounces  ;  hairy  vetch,  twenty  pounds, 
crimson  clover,  eight  pounds,  and  turnips,  eight 
ounces ;  hairy  vetch,  twenty  pounds,  and  red,  mam- 
moth or  crimson  clover,  eight  pounds ;  turnips,  eight 
ounces,  rye,  twenty  pounds,  and  red,  mammoth  or 
crimson  clover,  four  pounds  ;  turnips,  twelve  ounces, 
and  crimson  clover,  eight  pounds ;  turnips,  twelve 
ounces,  and  soy  beans  or  cowpeas,  forty  pounds ; 
dwarf  Essex  rape,  four  pounds,  and  rye,  one  bushel ; 
rape,  four  pounds,  soy  beans  or  cowpeas,  forty  pounds, 


COVER  CROPS  J  WINTER  CARE         77 

and  rye,  twenty  pounds;  alfalfa,  fifteen  pounds,  and 
red,  mammoth  or  crimson  clover,  seven  and  one-half 
pounds. ' ' 

Many  other  combinations  may  be  used  successfully. 
The  object  should  be  to  use  such  a  mixture  of  crops 
that  a  part  at  least  shall  live  over  winter.  A  few  of 
the  foregoing  combinations  contain  all  fall  crops  and 
for  that  reason  are  not  so  desirable  as  though  they 
contained  a  part  of  those  that  live  through  the  winter 
and  grow  in  the  spring.  Oats,  one  bushel,  crimson 
clover,  ten  pounds,  is  by  many  fruit-growers  con- 
sidered a  good  combination.  For  cold  climates  try 
the  following:  Hairy  vetch,  forty  pounds;  oats  (or  rye), 
thirty  pounds.  Crimson  clover  often  winter-kills. 

FAI,I,,  WINTER  AND  SPRING  CARE. — This  consists 
of  several  things,  the  most  important  of  which  are  : 
Protection  against  injury  by  mice  or  rabbits  ;  protec- 
tion against  sun-scald  ;  protection  against  live  stock  ; 
careful  oversight  of  drains  and  drainage  ;  safeguard- 
ing, so  far  as  possible,  against  late  spring  frosts  at 
blossoming  time  ;  and  hunting  for  borers.  Hints  on 
these  and  other  subjects  will  be  found  in  the  following 

HElyPS  FOR  FRUIT-GROWERS. 

A  bolt  put  in,  now,  may  save  nine  bushels  of  fruit  later.  Split 
trees  and  dangerous  crotches  need  attention.  Bolts  are  cheap. 
Use  'em. 

Winter  and  early  spring-  afford  excellent  chances  to  find  and 
destroy  all  cocoons,  egg  clusters,  etc.,  on  fruit  trees.  Make  a 
practise  of  doing  this  each  year.  It  pays. 

Be  careful  not  to  let  the  cover  crop  grow  so  late  in  the  spring 
that  it  pulls  all  the  moisture  out  of  the  soil.  Rye,  etc.,  should 
be  plowed  under  before  it  becomes  tall  and  woody. 

Cows,  sheep,  etc.,  have  no  good  excuse  for  being  in  an 
orchard  at  any  time.  There's  always  danger  that  they  will  bark 
the  trees, — especially  when  green  forage  is  absent. 


78  BIGGI/S   ORCHARD   BOOK 

When  fall  conies,  be  sure  to  clean  up  all  trash  in  the  orchard. 
Mow  the  weeds  (there  shouldn't  be  any).  Burn  all  rubbish. 
Then  the  owls,  hawks,  cats  and  crows  can  readily  see  and  catch 
all  field  mice. 

Trees  which  have  been  completely  girdled  by  mice  or  rab- 
bits, can  often  be  saved  by  means  of  bridge  grafting.  (See  Chap- 
ter II.)  Partially-girdled  trees  should  be  bandaged  with  cow 
manure  and  burlap. 

An  experienced  orchardist  says  that  it  is  an  excellent  plan 
to  leave  the  clippings  under  the  trees  in  the  winter  when  prun- 
ing an  orchard,  so  that  mice  and  rabbits  will  eat  such  tender 
twigs  instead  of  gnawing  at  the  tree  trunk  itself. 

Dormant  buds  :  Sometimes  every  fruit  bud  or  blossom  on  a 
tree  will  seem  to  be  killed  by  cold,  and  yet — to  most  folks'  sur- 
prise— a  moderate  crop  of  fruit  results.  How?  By  means  of  the 
dormant  (undeveloped)  buds  on  the  trees.  When  normal  buds 
are  killed,  the  trees  often  force  forward  the  dormant  ones  in 
time  partially  to  supply  the  deficiency. 

Good  drainage  in  the  orchard  is  essential  to  success.  I,ike 
human  beings,  fruit  trees  can  not  stand  wet  feet.  In  the  fall  a 
furrow-ditch  plowed  between  tree  rows,  or  wherever  needed, 
may  help  to  insure  better  drainage  conditions  during  the  winter 
and  early  spring.  See  that  tile  drain  outlets  do  not  become 
obstructed  ;  to  keep  out  small  animals,  fasten  wire  netting  over 
each  outlet. 

Fruit  buds  :  These  are  apt  to  be  more  plump  than  leaf  buds, 
and  are  therefore  usually  easily  recognized.  Slice  a  fruit  bud 
through  the  centre,  lengthwise ;  if  it  is  alive,  the  interior  is 
greenish-yellowish  in  appearance ;  if  dead,  the  heart  is  black- 
ened, even  though  the  remainder  of  interior  looks  all  right. 
Frozen  buds  should  be  thawed  out  for  several  days  before 
making  this  test. 

Severe  pruning-back  is  the  most  effective  treatment  for  badly 
frozen  very  young  peach  trees,  etc.  Moderate  cutting-back  is 
best  for  less  seriously  affected  young  trees,  -and  also  for  badly 
injured  old  peach  trees,  etc.  Citrus  trees,  etc.,  will  often  sprout 
again  from  a  mere  stump.  Give  all  frozen  trees  a  fair  chance  ; 
never  pull  out  a  tree  until  it  has  had  an  opportunity  to  recover. 
Nature  sometimes  performs  wonders  in  this  line  in  one  or  two 
seasons. 

Farmers  who  have  been  putting  axle  grease  on  their  trees  to 
protect  them  from  rabbits,  sheep  and  vermin,  should  not  do  so. 
It  is  not  a  good  plan.  The  sun  shining  on  the  greasy  bark  drives 
the  grease  into  the  tree  and  may  kill  it.  The  best  thing  to  use  is 
beef  blood,  such  as  is  easily  obtained  in  any  slaughter  house ; 
then  mix  it  thoroughly  with  clay  and  wood  ashes.  The  ashes 
act  as  a  germicide,  while  the  clay  forms  a  paste  which  prevents 
the  blood  being  readily  washed  off  by  the  rains. 


COVER  CROPS  J  WINTER  CARE) 


79 


Blossom  knowledge:  1.  Scarcely  one  fruit  blossom  in  ten  sets 
fruit,  even  in  the  most  favorable  seasons  and  with  the  most  pro- 
ductive varieties.  2.  Trees  making  a  very  vigorous  growth  may 
drop  their  blossoms.  3.  Brown  rot,  apple  or  pear  scab,  and  pear 
blight  may  kill  the  blossoms.  4.  Frost  injury  to  blossoms  is  of 
all  degrees.  Even  flowers  which  appear  to  be  uninjured  may  be 
so  weakened  that  they  can  not  set  fruit.  5.  Rain  during  the 
blooming  season  prevents  the  setting  of  fruit,  chiefly  by  destroy- 
ing the  vitality  of  the  pollen,  injuring  the  stigma,  or  by  pre- 
venting fertilization  because  of  the  low  temperature.  The 
washing  of  pollen  from  the  anthers  seldom  causes  serious  loss. 
6.  If  a  tree  stands  alone  and  does  not  bear  fruit,  it  may  be 
self-sterile. 

Sun-scald  is  usually  caused  by  alternate  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing, which  eventually  bursts  the  bark  on  the  southward  side  of 
the  tree  trunk  near  the  ground.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, it  is  caused  by  the  sun  striking  too  hot  in 
summer  on  exposed  branches  or  trunk.  It  is  a 
serious  trouble  in  some  orchards  and  with  some 
varieties,  and  the  only  sure  remedy  is  to  shade  the 
trunk  in  some  manner.  Wrappings  of  wood  veneer 
or  laths  answer  the  purpose,  generally  speaking. 
Besides,  such  wrappings  fence  out  mice  and  rabbits. 
I  earnestly  advise  my  brother  orchardists  to  avail 
themselves  of  this  double  protection.  Wood-veneer 
tree  protectors  may  be  purchased  for  about  $5  per 
1000,  and  will  last  several  years.  Protection  against 
sun -scald  and  rabbit  injury  is  especially  necessary 
for  young  trees. 

Abel  F.  Stevens  says: — "Spring  frosts  have  PROTECTOR 
caused  an  immense  amount  of  damage.  We  have 
been  very  successful  in  combating  the  baneful  effects  of  killing 
frosts  by  the  following  method  :  Mix  coal-tar  with  sawdust  and 
old  straw,  and  place  in  heaps  on  the  windward  side.  When 
heavy  frosts  threaten,  set  these  heaps  afire.  They  will  burn  for 
many  hours,  making  a  dense  smoke  which  completely  protects 
blossoms  or  fruit."  An  excellent  idea,  surely.  In  this  connection 
I  would  say  that  some  western  orchardists  are  using  an  electric 
automatic  alarm  thermometer,  to  give  warning  at  night  when 
frost  damage  threatens.  This  saves  the  owner  the  trouble  of 
sitting  up  nights.  The  thermometer  is  fastened  to  a  post  in  the 
orchard,  and  wires  run  from  it  to  an  alarm  bell  in  the  house 
bedroom.  If  the  cold  reaches  the  danger  point,  the  bell  rings, 
and  the  fruit-grower  can  then  hasten  out  and  light  his  smudges, 
lyet  me  say,  further,  that  sprinkling  or  irrigating  an  orchard 
when  frost  threatens,  is  often  an  excellent  preventive  of  frost 
injury. 

Beware  of  borers:  Various  kinds  of  borers  —  fat,  whitish 
worms— attack  the  different  varieties  of  fruit  trees;  there  are 
the  apple-tree  borers,  the  peach-tree  borers,  etc..  etc.  It  will  be 
wise  to  begin  looking  for  signs  of  these  pests  the  fall  or  spring 


80  BIGGIyE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

following  the  setting-  of  the  trees,  and,  during1  the  life  of  the 
trees,  this  annual  inspection  should  be  continued.  Carry  a 
sharp,  small-bladed  knife,  a  piece  of  stout,  flexible  wire,  and  a 


when  found,  show  that  one  or  more  borers  probably  lurk  within. 
So,  down  you-go  on  your  knees  ;  the  soil  is  pulled  away  from  the 
trunk  to  a  depth  of  several  inches— and  the  war  is  on  !     With 
knife  and  wire  the  borers'  burrows  are 
probed  until  the  enemy  is  found  and 
killed.      Then  on  to  the  next  tree.      A 
few  carelul  cuts  in  the  bark  do  the  tree 
far   less  injury  than    the   damage    an 

unmolested  borer  will  do.  So  don't  be  afraid.  (Note :  Some 
species  of  borers — notably  the  flat-headed  apple-tree  borer  and 
the  plum-tree  borer— often  attack  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk, 
and  even  the  lower  portions  of  the  main  limbs.  The  peach-tree 
borer  and  the  round-headed  apple-tree  borer  usually  attack 
the  trunk  at  a  point  close  to  the  ground.)  Among  preventive 
measures  are  several  methods  which  are  sometimes  successfully 
used  to  keep  borers  out  of  the  trees :  Mound  up  the  earth  to  a 
height  of  a  foot  or  more  around  each  tree,  in  May,  and  then 
allow  the  earth  to  remain  until  September.  Or,  protect  the 
lower  part  of  each  trunk  (during  the  same  period  of  time)  with 
closely- wrapped  building  paper.  This  paper  should  extend  an 
inch  or  so  below  the  ground  surface,  and  about  two  feet  above 
it,  and  be  securely  tied  in  place.  Or  try  this  wash  :  Dissolve 
one  pound  of  hard  soap  in  two  gallons  of  boiling  water;  then 
add  one  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid,  an  ounce  of  Paris  green,  and 
enough  lime  to  make  a  thin  paste  ;  apply  with  a  brush  to  trunks 
and  larger  branches  of  trees ;  if  bark  is  rough,  scrape  trunks 
before  applying  wash.  Professor  Surface  says  that  the  ordinary 
lime-sulphur  mixture,  sprayed  or  brushed  on  the  trunks,  is  an 
excellent  preventive  of  borer,  mice  and  rabbit  injury. 

Spring  frosts  of  various  kinds  are  most  successfully  fought 
by  the  use  of  about  100  oil-burning  metal  pots  evenly  distributed 
on  each  acre.  Coal-burning  metal  baskets  are  preferred  by  some 
orchardists.  Several  excellent  forms  of  both  devices  are  now  on 
the  market,  and  the  expense  of  a  satisfactory  outfit  is  not  pro- 
hibitive. I  believe  that  these  heaters  will  come  into  use  more 
and  more  by  up-to-date  fruit-growers  everywhere.  For  further 
information  on  this  subject,  write  to  your  State  Experiment 
Station. 


CHAPTER  X. 


THE  APPLE. 


If  there^s  a  better  fruit  than  an  apple  ifs  another  apple. — Tim. 

This  splendid  fruit  is  almost  as  ' '  old  as  the  hills. ' ' 
King  Solomon  appreciated  good  apples.  And  charred 
remains  of  apples  have  been  found  in  prehistoric 
dwellings  in  Europe.  Southwestern  Asia  is  where 
this  fruit  originated.  Harriet  says  that  it  is  the  ' '  best 
job  that  Asia  ever  did, "  and  I  agree  with  her. 

PROPAGATION. — Apples  can  be  propagated  either 
by  grafting  or  budding,  the  former  method  being 
most  commonly  used  by  nurserymen.  Whip  grafts 
on  seedling  roots  are  often  employed.  But  there  are 
several  ways  of  obtaining  good  trees  for  setting.  My 
friend,  Wilmer  Atkinson,  says:  "If  I  were  to  plant 
another  apple  orchard,  I  should  buy  Northern  Spy 
nursery  trees,  set  them,  and  cut  oif  and  cleft -graft 
(after  the  tree  is  set)  each  trunk  at  the  point  where 
the  first  branches  are  wanted, — using  scions  cut  from 
thrifty  bearing  trees  of  known  variety  and  productive- 
ness." To  Mr.  Atkinson's  excellent  plan  I  might  add 
that  if  a  man  has  time,  and  can't  afford  to  buy  the 
trees,  he  might  grow  Spy  seedling  trees  and  then 
graft  them  —  thus  saving  the  nursery  bill. 

SELECTING  NURSERY  TREES. — Two -year -old, 
straight,  medium  -  size,  healthy  trees  are  about  right. 
See  that  they  are  not  branched  too  high  ;  three  or  four 
feet  should  be  the  limit. 

(81) 


82 


HIGGLE    ORCHARD    BOOK 


SoiLS.--Aimost   any   soil    will    do    for    the   apple 
orchard,  provided  that  it  be  somewhat  elevated  and 

sufficiently  well 
drained.  Very 
light  sand,  or 
swampy  muck, 
would  be  least 
desirable ;  a 
loamy  clay  soil, 
most  desirable. 

VARIETIES 
WHICH      ARE 
OFTEN    SELF- 
MAY'S  PROMISE  STERILE.— 

* '  Bellflower,  Primate,  Spitzenburg,  Willow  Twig, 
Winesap, "  says  Cornell  Experiment  Station.  Some 
other  varieties  might  be  added  to  this  list.  In  fact, 
the  only  safe  way  is  to  mix  the  planting,  and  to 
include  some  of  the  more  self-fertile-blossom  kinds, — 
such  as  "Baldwin,  Ben  Davis,  Fallawater,  Jannet, 
Oldenburg,  Rhode  Island  Greening, 
Astrachan,  Smith's  Cider, "  etc.  (And 
even  some  of  these  are  self-sterile  in 
some  localities  and  under  some  cir- 
cumstances !  So  I  again  say, '  *  Mix. ' ' ) 
PRUNING. — Apple  trees  should  be 
cut  back  (so  as  not  to  grow  too  high) , 
thinned  out  (so  as  to  let  sunshine  and 
air  into  the  head),  and  trimmed  up 
(to  permit  of  necessary  horse  cultiva- 
tion) .  For  general  pruning  directions,  see  Chapter  V. 
Moderate,  regular  trimming  is  preferable  to  heavy, 


AUTUMN'S 
FULFILLMENT 


THE  APPI,E  83 

irregular  trimming.  The  apple  produces  its  fruit  on 
twigs  or  fruit  spurs  which  are  at  least  three  or  four 
years  old. 

PRINCIPAL  INSECT  PESTS. — Aphis  (lice)  on 
leaves.  Remedy  :  Spray  with  tobacco  solution  when 
lice  first  hatch  out  and  before  they  are  hidden  by  curl 
of  leaves. 

Apple  maggot :  A  tiny  worm  which  tunnels  the 
fruit  in  all  directions.  Remedy  :  Promptly  pick  up 
and  destroy  or  feed  to  the  stock  all  windfalls. 

Apple-twig  borer:  A  tiny  blackish  beetle  which 
bores  into  terminal  twigs  near  buds.  Infested  twigs 
often  wilt  and  die.  No  good  remedy  is  known,  except 
to  cut  off  all  such  twigs,  not  later  than  July,  and  burn 
them. 

Borers:  Two  kinds — "round-headed"  and  "flat- 
headed."  See  Chapter  IX  for  borer  remedies. 

Bud  worm  :  A  little  caterpillar  that  attacks  buds, 
blossoms  and  starting  leaves.  Remedy  :  Arsenical 
spray  when  buds  begin  to  open. 

Buffalo  tree-hopper  :  A  small  greenish  insect  about 
one-third  of  an  inch  long,  that  punctures  the  twigs, 
causing  a  peculiar  scarred  appearance.  Remedy  : 
Cut  off  the  injured  twigs  and  burn. 

Codling  moth  :  'Tis  estimated  that  one-half  of 
America's  apple  crop  is  annually  ruined  by  the  cod- 
ling moth.  This  is  the  pest  that  causes  ' '  wormy  apple- 
cores."  The  moth  seldom  flies  except  at  night,  and 
therefore  few  fruit-grcwers  have  ever  seen  one. 
About  the  time  that  the  blossoms  are  falling,  this 
moth  appears  and  glues  its  eggs  on  or  near  the  min- 
iature apples.  In  about  a  week  these  eggs  hatch, 


84  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

and,  as  a  rule,  each  little  apple  worm  soon  finds  its 
way  directly  into  the  upright,  open,  cup-like  blos- 
som end  on  top  of  an  apple.  Here  it  hides  and  feeds 
for  several  days — then  it  bores  its  way  into  the  apple 
to  the  core.  The  time  to  fight  this  pest  is  when  it  is 
feeding  on  the  outside  of  the  apple,  in  the  little  cup- 
like  cradle.  A  drop  or  two  of  poison  then  applied 
will  quickly  kill  the  worm  and  thus  save  the  apple  ; 
whereas  if  the  fight  is  delayed  until  it  has  really 
entered  the  apple,  no  outward  application  of  poison 
can  affect  it.  "  The  falling  of  the  blossoms 
is  the  signal  to  begin  spraying ;  the  clos- 
ing of  the  calyx:  lobes  a  week  or  two  later 
is  the  signal  to  stop 
spraying"  The  Bor- 
deaux-arsenical spray 

,  '       .  STOP    SPRAYING" 

"BEGIN      is    excellent    for     this 

SPRAYING  purpose.  Two  applications — a  week  apart 
— are  advised.  Banding  the  trees,  and  promptly 
destroying  all  windfall  apples,  are  measures  which 
are  also  of  help. 

Canker  worm  :  This  "  looping  "  or  "  measuring  " 
caterpillar  feeds  upon  the  foliage  and  is  often  very 
destructive.  Remedies  :  Sticky  bands  of  tar,  printers' 
ink,  or  fly-paper,  placed  around  each  tree  trunk  in 
early  spring  to  prevent  the  ascent  of  the  egg-laying 
moths ;  an  arsenical  spray  all  over  trees  where 
worms  have  hatched. 

Curculio :  A  hump-backed  beetle  about  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  long  (related  to  the  plum  curculio,  but  with 
a  longer  snout)  which  sometimes  stings  young  apples. 
Remedy  :  Arsenical  spray. 


THE  APPiyE  85 


Leaf  roller,  leaf  crumpler,  and  leaf  skeletonizer  : 
These  three  pests  can  be  killed  with  an  arsenical 
spray. 

Scale  lice  :  San  Jose,  oyster-shell,  and  scurfy.  See 
Chapter  VIII  for  remedies. 

Ten  t-  caterpillar  :  The  well-known  "nest"  worm 
found  on  trees  in  early  summer.  Remedies  :  Tie  a 
piece  of  cloth  around  one  end  of  a  long  stick,  saturate 
the  cloth  with  kerosene,  ignite,  and  with  this  torch 
quickly  burn  each  silky  tent  of  worms  ;  do  this  in 
early  morning  or  just  before  nightfall,  so  as  to  be 
sure  that  all  the  worms  are  '  '  at  home  "  ;  an  arsenical 
spray  is  also  helpful. 

Woolly  aphis  :  There  are  two  forms  of  this  insect  ; 
one  attacks  the  roots,  as  told  in  Chapter  III  ;  the 
other  occurs  in  masses  of  white,  woolly  substance  on 
the  limbs  and  trunks.  Beneath  each  woolly  mass  will 
be  found  a  number  of  yellowish  lice.  Remedies  : 
Kerosene  emulsion,  tobacco  solution,  or  scalding  hot 
water. 

PRINCIPAL,  FUNGOUS  PESTS.  —  Powdery  mildew: 
Whitish  blotches  sometimes  found,  about  midsummer, 
on  terminal  shoots  and  leaves,  which  soon  spread 
over  most  of  the  new  growth.  Remedy  :  Bordeaux 
mixture. 

Rot  :  This  trouble  is  also  called  '  '  bitter  rot,  "  '  '  ripe 
rot,  "  '  '  apple  rot,  '  '  etc.  ;  it  attacks  the  fruit  before  the 
ripening  period,  causing  decayed  brown  spots  ;  usually 
the  infected  specimens  drop  to  the  ground,  although 
some  of  them  shrivel  up'  and  stay  on  the  tree  all 
winter,  thus  carrying  the  fungous  spores  to  the  next 
year's  crop.  Remedies  :  Destroy  fallen  fruit;  remove 


86  BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

and  burn  all  mummied  apples  which  stay  on  the  trees 
in  the  fall ;  spray  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  early  in 
the  season.  (Note :  There  is  another  form  of  rot 
which  is  called  '  *  pink  rot. ' '  Bordeaux  is  the  remedy. ) 

Rust :  A  fungus  which  sometimes  blisters  the 
leaves  with  orange-colored  spots,  and  which  usually 
originates  on  cedar  trees.  Remedies  :  Spray  or  cut 
down  any  cedars  which  may  be  near  the  apple  orchard ; 
spray  the  orchard  with  Bordeaux. 

Scab  :  This  is  sometimes  called  ' '  black  spot "  ;  it 
produces  the  well-known  scabby  places  upon  apples ; 
it  also  affects  the  new  shoots  and  leaves,  causing  black 
blotches  thereon, — and  often  the  early  spring  leaves 
are  thus  blighted;  young  apples  shrivel  and  drop 
from  the  tree  ;  mature  apples  are  seriously  disfigured. 
Remedy  :  Bordeaux,  several  sprayings  at  intervals  of 
about  two  weeks,  beginning  before  buds  open. 

Twig  blight:  This  apple  disease  is  similar  in 
nature  to  the  well-known  ' '  fire  blight ' '  of  the  pear ; 
affected  terminal  twigs  (including  leaves,  flowers  or 
fruit  thereon)  turn  black  or  brown,  and  die.  The 
only  known  remedy  is  to  cut  out  the  diseased  parts, 
and  burn.  (See  pear  blight,  Chapter  XIII.)  This 
trouble  comes  and  goes,  and  is  worse  some  years  than 
others. 

MISCELLANEOUS  TROUBLES. — Chief  among  these 
are  sun-scald  (consult  Chapter  IX),  crown  galls 
(Chapter  III) ,  canker  and  collar  rot  No  very  good 
remedies  are  known  for  the  two  last  -  mentioned 
troubles;  they  seem  to  be  closely  related  to  "twig" 
and  "fire"  blight;  for  instance,  a  blighted  twig  will 
often  cause  a  canker  to  form  near  its  base. 


THK  APPI<E  87 

Canker  is  a  fungous  or  bacterial  trouble  which 
causes  cracked  or  sunken  irregular  dead  places  to 
appear  on  the  bark  or  limbs,  in  crotches,  and  some- 
times in  such  form  as  practically  to  girdle  small 
branches.  Cut  out  and  burn  such  small  branches. 
If  large  cankers  appear  on  trunk  or  main  limbs,  cut 
out  the  diseased  places  with  a  sharp  knife,  swab  out 
and  disinfect  the  wounds  with  corrosive  sublimate 
solution  (one  tablet  dissolved  in  one  pint  of  water), 
and,  when  dry,  cover  the  places  with  thick  lead-and-oil 
paint.  Do  this  early  in  the  season.  Renew  the  paint 
each  year  until  wounds  heal.  Disinfect  knife  after 
such  use.  Remember  that  corrosive  sublimate  is 
poison. 

Collar  rot  most  often  attacks  King  and  Spitzen- 
burg  trees,  and  diseased  trees  should  be  treated  as 
advised  for  canker.  (Note  :  Top-grafting  these  va- 
rieties on,  say,  Spy  stocks,  would  secure  new  trees 
less  liable  to  this  disease  of  the  bark  at  the  base  of 
the  trunk.) 

A  WISE  ''COMBINATION"  SPRAYING  SYSTKM. — 
The  up-to-date  grower  does  not  often  consider  each 
insect  and  fungous  pest  separately.  No.  He  plans  a 
spraying  campaign  which  pretty  nearly  hits  them  all 
(except  borers,  aphis,  etc. ) .  Here  is  a  good  system  : 
First  spraying,  Bordeaux,  in  spring  before  leaf  buds 
open  ;  second  spraying  (if  bud  worms,  canker  worms 
or  curculios  are  abundant),  Bordeaux-arsenical  mix- 
ture, just  before  blossoms  open ;  third  spraying,  Bor- 
deaux-arsenical mixture  immediately  after  blossoms 
fall ;  fourth,  repeat  same  mixture  at  end  of  one 
week  ;  Bordeaux  alone,  two  weeks  later,  may  make 


$8  BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

the  fifth  application.  (Note:  Often,  only  the  first,  third 
and  fourth  sprayings  are  necessary.  If  strong  lime- 
sulphur  spray  is  used  in  February  or  March  for  San 
Jose,  the  first  application  of  Bordeaux  may  be  omitted. 
If  desired,  the  later  Bordeaux  sprays  may  be  replaced 
by  the  mild  or  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  mixtures.) 

APPI.E  BY-PRODUCTS. — The  poorer  grades  of  apples 
can  often  be  advantageously  utilized  in  the  making  of 
jelly,  marmalade,  dried  apples,  and  vinegar.  With  a 
hand  press  about  two  gallons  of  cider  can  be  extracted 
from  a  bushel  of  average  apples  ;  with  a  power  press 
it  is  possible  to  extract  almost  twice  as  much.  Barrels 
for  cider  vinegar  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
scalded  out.  Fermentation  is  usually  completed  in 
from  three  to  six  weeks,  at  which  time  add  a  small 
quantity  of  mother  of  vinegar  to  hasten  the  vinegar 
process.  Admit  air  freely  to  the  barrels,  keep  them 
in  the  warmest  part  of  the  cellar,  and  in  less  than  a 
year  you  should  have  a  supply  of  excellent  vinegar. 

REINVIGORATING  AN  OI^D,  NEGLECTED  OR- 
CHARD.—  Circumstances  may  alter  cases,  but  in  a 
general  way  I  suggest  the  following  plan :  First,  prune 
as  directed  for  neglected  trees  (Chapter  V) ;  then  com- 
mence the  "  combination  spraying  system  "  recom- 
mended in  this  chapter  ;  look  out  for  borers,  sun- 
scald,  scale  lice,  etc.  ;  scrape  loose  bark  off  from 
trunk  and  main  limbs,  and  apply  whitewash  thereto  (if 
the  lime-sulphur  spray  is  used,  whitewash  will  not  be 
needed) ;  plug  up  or  paint  all  old  wounds,  first  sawing 
off  all  old  stubs  (grafting  wax  makes  a  good  plug  for 
cavities) ;  plow  the  orchard  in  spring — as  shallow  as 
possible  ;  never  mind  if  you  do  cut  a  few  roots  ;  apply 


PLATE  X 


MAIDEN'S  BLUSH 


OLDENBURG 


THE  APPLE  89 

fertilizers,  and  cultivate,  regularly,  as  told  in  Chapter 
VI ;  sow  cover  crops  as  directed  in  Chapter  IX  ;  con- 
tinue to  prune,  spray,  plow,  fertilize,  cultivate,  etc., 
each  following  year. 

VARIETIES. — Those  marked  with  a  star  are  espe- 
cially suited  for  commercial  orchards  and  market. 

Iy.  B.  Judson,  Idaho,  says  that  Jonathan,  Rome  Beauty  and 
Ben  Davis  are  the  greatest  favorites,  the  state  over,  for  com- 
mercial plantations. 

J.  C.  Whitten,  Missouri,  pins  his  faith  to  these  commercial 
kinds:  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Jonathan,  York  Imperial,  Missouri 
Pippin,  Winesap,  Grimes'  Golden,  Clayton,  Ingram  and  Rome 
Beauty. 

W.  T.  Vincenheller,  Arkansas,  writes  :  For  a  list  of  market 
apples  that  I  would  plant  in  an  orchard  of  1,000  trees,  I  beg  to 
state  that  I  would  use  Black  Ben  Davis,  Jonathan,  Grimes' 
Golden  and  King  David,  in  equal  quantities. 

Farm  Journal's  "best  twelve"  list  of  market  varieties 
from  which  to  select  for  a  commercial  orchard  located  in 
Pennsylvania,  etc.,  comprises:  Hays,  Maiden's  Blush,  Rambo, 
York  Imperial,  Rome  Beauty,  Stayman  Winesap,  Baldwin, 
R.  I.  Greening,  Grimes'  Golden,  Sutton  Beauty,  Smokehouse, 
Smith's  Cider. 

Dr.  Chamberlain's  favorite  list  of  market  varieties  for  Ohio, 
is  as  follows:  "For  summer,  Red  Astrachan,  Oldenburg;  for 
early  fall,  Maiden's  Blush ;  for  late  fall  and  winter,  Baldwin, 
R.  I.  Greening,  Seek-no-further,  Peck's  Pleasant  (short-lived 
tree  but  fine  dessert  apple),  Northern  Spy,  Roxbury  Russet, 
Jonathan,  Belmont,  Canada  Red.  I  would  have  at  least  ninety 
per  cent.  Baldwins." 

For  the  cold  districts  of  Maine,  northern  Vermont,  northern 
New  Hampshire,  northeastern  New  York,  Quebec,  New  Bruns- 
wick, etc.,  and  the  northern  peninsula  of  Michigan,  the  following 
varieties  are  suggested  by  the  government  pomologist: 

Tetofsky;  *Oldenburg ;  *Gravenstein  ;  Wealthy;  St.  Law- 
rence;  Twenty  Ounce;  *Fameuse ;  Pewaukee;  Bailey  Sweet; 
Mclntosh;  Wolf  River;  Tolman  Sweet;  *Northern  Spy. 

For  Colorado,  etc.,  the  following  varieties  are  suggested  : 
Tetofsky;  *Red  Astrachan;  *Oldenburg;  *Maideti's  Blush; 
Bailey  Sweet ;  ^Jonathan  ;  Pewaukee  ;  Swaar ;  Fallawater ; 
Hubbardston ;  White  Pearmain ;  Yellow  Bellflower ;  Golden 
Russet ;  Peck's  Pleasant ;  *Winesap  ;  Yellow  Transparent ;  Early 
Harvest  ;  Red  June  ;  Gravenstein  ;  Wealthy  ;  Wolf  River  ; 
*Grimes'  Golden;  Northern  Spy  ;  Tolman  Sweet;  *Missouri ; 
*Tompkins  King;  Red  Canada;  Rhode  Island  Greening;  *Rome 
Beauty;  Wagener;  White  Pippin  ;  Rail's  Jannet. 


90  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

For  Delaware,  southern  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  southern  Ohio,  southern  Indiana,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina,  the  following  varieties  are 
suggested : 

Yellow  Transparent ;  Trenton  Early  ;  *Oldenburg  ;  Primate ; 
Red  June ;  Golden  Sweet ;  Early  Strawberry ;  Fall  Pippin ; 
Jefferis  ;  Rambo ;  "Gravenstein ;  Wealthy  ;  "Jonathan  ;  "Northern 
Spy ;  Esopus ;  Blue  Pearmain  ;  *Ben  Davis  ;  Rail's  Jannet ;  Early 
Harvest ;  Porter ;  St.  I^awrence ;  Shiawassee  ;  Melon  ;  *Grimes' 
Golden ;  Newtown  Spitzenburg ;  Fallawater  ;  *White  Pippin  ; 
Arkansas  (Mammoth  Blacktwig);  *Stark;  *York  Imperial; 
*Stayman  Winesap ;  *  Yellow  Newtown. 

For  northern  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  and 
Nebraska,  the  following  varieties  are  suggested  : 

Tetofsky  ;  Red  Astrachan  ;  "Oldenburg ;  Red  Stripe  ;  Golden 
Sweet;  "Benoni;  Charlamoff ;  Borovinka ;  Porter;  *Maiden's 
Blush;  Alexander;  Dyer;  Rambo;  L,owell ;  Shiawassee;  Yel- 
low Transparent ;  Early  Harvest ;  Primate  ;  Jefferis  ;  Graven- 
stein  ;  Fall  Pippin ;  St.  I,awrence  ;  Wolf  River ;  *Wealthy ; 
Fameuse ;  Mclntosh  ;  Indies'  Sweet ;  "Grimes'  Golden ;  West- 
field  ;  Newtown  Spitzenburg ;  Esopus  ;  Domine  ;  Roman  Stem  ; 
*White  Pippin  ;  Rome  Beauty  ;  *Stark  ;  Rail's  Jannet ;  "Willow  ; 
*Jonathan  ;  "Hubbardston  ;  Wagener ;  Red  Canada ;  Tolman  ; 
English  Russet ;  N.  W.  Greening  ;  "Winesap ;  *York  Imperial. 

For  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  southern  Ver- 
mont, southern  New  Hampshire,  northern  New  Jersey,  Penn- 
sylvania, northern  Indiana,  northern  Ohio,  and  the  lower 
peninsula  of  Michigan,  the  following  varieties  are  suggested: 

Early  Harvest;  "Oldenburg;  Golden  Sweet;  Red  Stripe; 
Sweet  Bough;  Early  Strawberry ;  "Maiden's  Blush;  Red  Astra- 
chan ;  Benoni ;  *Rambo ;  Gravenstein  ;  "Fameuse ;  St.  I^awrence ; 
Jefferis;  Bailey  Sweet;  Wagener;  *Northern  Spy;  Esopus; 
"Rome  Beauty  ;  "Baldwin :  "Ben  Davis  ;  "Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing ;  Winesap;  "York  Imperial;  Fall  Pippin;  Shiawassee;  Jer- 
sey Sweet;  Wealthy;  *Grimes'  Golden;  Smokehouse;  "Sutton 
Beauty;  "Smith's  Cider;  Westfield  ;  Newtown  Spitzenburg;  Red 
Canada ;  *Tompkins  King ;  Hubbardston  ;  Roxbury ;  *Stark. 


JOLLY   GOOD    FELLOWS 


MONTMORENCY 


BLACK  TARTARIAN 
(IN  MIDDLE) 


CHAPTER  XL 


THE   CHERRY. 


Plant  enough  cherries  for  both  folks  and  birds. — Farmer  Vincent. 

This  delicious  fruit  came  originally  from  Europe, 
and  comprises  two  distinct  species — sour  cherries  and 
sweet  cherries. 

PROPAGATION.  —  Budding  is  the  usual  method. 
Common  seedlings  may  be  used  for  stocks,  although 
nurserymen  commonly  use  imported  stocks  such 
as  the  Mahaleb  or  the  Mazzard.  For  very  cold 
climates  the  Mahaleb  stock  proves  more  hardy. 

SELECTING  NURSERY  TREES.  —  Cherries  one  or 
two  years  old  from  the  bud,  are  about  right.  Choose 
medium-size  trees.  If  you  can  get  unbranched  sweet 
cherries,  they  are  somewhat  easier  to  make  live. 

SoiiyS. — Cherry  trees  do  best  in  a  light  soil,  well 
drained,  but  not  too  dry  ;  sandy,  loamy  or  gravelly. 

SPECIAL  CULTIVATION  RULES. — Owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  cherry  matures  its  fruit  so  early  in  the 
season,  cultivation  should  begin  earlier  and  cease 
sooner  than  in  the  case  of  other  tree  fruits. 

Bark-burst,  sun-scald,  gum  :  Cherries  (especially 
sweet  varieties) ,  often  grow  so  rapidly  as  to  burst  the 
bark  at  some  point  or  points  on  the  trunk.  There- 
fore, excessive  pruning,  cultivation  or  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  should  be  discouraged.  In  fact,  many 
growers  say  that  cultivation  should  cease  two  or 
three  years  after  planting,  and  the  ground  be  seeded 
(91) 


92  BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

down  permanently.  This,  of  course,  depends  some- 
what on  climate,  variety,  and  soil.  In  regard  to 
sun -scald  injury  and  preventive  measures,  consult 
Chapter  IX  ;  for  gum,  see  Chapter  XII. 

VARIETIES  WHICH  ARE  OFTEN  SELF-STERILE. — 
S.  W.  Fletcher  places  three  varieties  in  this  list : 
Napoleon,  Belle  de  Choisy,  and  Reine  Hortense. 

PRUNING. — The  less  cherry  trees  are  pruned  the 
better.  Of  course,  it  is  necessary  to  cut  back  a  tree  at 
time  of  planting,  and  to  guide  it  in  the  right  path  for 
the  first  two  or  three  years.  The  fruit  of  the  cherry 
is  produced  only  on  wood  which  is  two  or  three 
years  old. 

PRINCIPAL  INSECT  PESTS. — Aphis  (lice) :  Attack 
the  leaves  on  ends  of  tender  young  shoots.  Remedy : 
Tobacco  solution,  applied  early,  before  leaves  curl. 

Borers :  The  flat-headed  cherry-tree  borer  is  very 
much  like  the  flat-headed  apple-tree  borer. 

Curculio :  The  plum  curculio  often  stings  cher- 
ries, too,  but  the  injured  cherries  are  not  so  apt  to 
drop  off. 

Cherry  fruit-fly  or  maggot :  A  fly  which  punctures 
the  skin  of  the  fruit,  and  deposits  an  egg  which  soon 
hatches  into  a  small  worm  or  maggot.  The  curculio 
makes  a  crescent-shaped  puncture  ;  this  fly  does  not 
Prof.  Slingerland  says :  "  Place  a  temporary  wire  net- 
ting around  the  trees  and  turn  hens  therein  soon  after 
the  fruit  is  picked. ' ' 

Leaf  rollers:  These  pests  feed  on  the  leaves 
and  roll  them  together  for  protection.  Remedies : 
Arsenical  sprays ;  cut  off  and  burn  badly  infested 
twigs. 


THE  CHERRY  93 

May  beetle  :  This  well-known  "June  bug  "  some- 
times attacks  the  foliage  at  night.  Arsenical  sprays. 

Rose  bug  :  See  Chapter  XII. 

Slug :  The  ordinary  pear-tree  slug  often  feeds  on 
the  leaves  of  cherry  trees. 

San  Jose  scale  louse  :  Consult  Chapter  VIII. 

PRINCIPAL,  FUNGOUS  PESTS. — Black  knot :  Dark, 
knotty,  wart-like  bunches  upon  twigs  and  branches. 
Hasily  seen  and  recognized.  Spreads  if  not  promptly 
attended  to.  Remedy  :  Cut  out  and  burn  all  knots  as 
soon  as  seen  ;  cut  well  below  the  diseased  parts  (also, 
spray  the  trees  with  Bordeaux) . 

Brown  rot :  It  causes  decayed  brownish  places  on 
the  fruit,  quickly  ruining  it  and  rapidly  spreading  to 
adjacent  cherries ;  infected  specimens  may  drop  to 
the  ground,  or  they  may  shrivel  up  and  stay  on  the 
tree  all  winter,  thus  carrying  the  disease  to  next 
year's  crop.  Remedies  :  Destroy  fallen  fruit ;  remove 
and  burn  all  mummied  cherries  found  on  the  trees  in 
the  fall ;  spray  with  Bordeaux,  several  times,  early  in 
the  season  ;  pick  the  fruit  promptly  and  early. 

Leaf -blight  or  spot :  Often  called  the  ' '  shot-hole 
fungus."  Makes  round  spots  on  the  leaves,  which 
soon  drop  off.  Remedy  :  Two  or  three  early  spray- 
ings with  Bordeaux. 

Powdery  mildew  :  See  Chapter  X. 

COMPLETE  SPRAYING  SYSTEM.  —  Properly  and 
easily  to  treat  most  insects  (except  lice,  borers,  etc. ) , 
and  all  fungous  pests,  I  suggest  the  following  com- 
bined method :  Just  before  buds  open,  apply  Bordeaux- 
arsenical  mixture ;  give  second  spraying  when  fruit 
has  set,  using  same  mixture  ;  two  weeks  later, 


94  BIGGLE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

Bordeaux.  (Special  note:  If  the  trees  receive  a  lime- 
sulphur  treatment  for  San  Jose  in  early  spring,  the 
first  Bordeaux  application  may  be  omitted.  If  desired, 
the  later  Bordeaux  sprays  may  be  replaced  by  the 
mild  or  self-boiled  lime-sulphur.) 

BIRD  INJURY. — I  wish  that  I  were  able  to  suggest 
a  really  satisfactory  way  to  prevent  birds  from  getting 
more  than  their  share  of  cherries.  The  only  prac- 
ticable remedies  seem  to  be  :  Either  put  mosquito 
netting  over  a  few  trees,  or  plant  enough  trees  for 
birds,  market  and  family.  One  or  two  mulberry 
trees  help  to  attract  birds  away  from  the  cherries. 

VARIETIES. — Those  marked  with  a  star  are  espe- 
cially suited  for  market. 

H.  I,.  Price,  for  Virginia,  recommends:  Coe's  Transparent; 
Early  Purple:  Windsor;  Reine  Hortense  ;  *Montmorency ;  Olivet. 

J.  Iy.  Herbst,  Sparta,  Wisconsin,  recommends  just  one  variety 
—  Early  Richmond  —  as  being  profitable  to  plant  in  that  cold 
climate. 

My  friend  Wilmer  Atkinson's  favorite  list  for  Pennsylvania, 
and  similar  climates,  is  as  follows  :  *Black  Tartarian  ;  *Windsor ; 
Gov.  Wood  ;  Downer's  I^ate  ;  Early  Richmond  ;  *Montmorency. 

Edward  J.  Wickson  recommends  for  California,  the  follow- 
ing" varieties  :  *Early  Purple  Guigue ;  *Napoleon  (often  called 
"Royal  Ann");  *I,ewelling;  *Black  Tartarian;  California 
Advance ;  *Eing. 

Benton  Gebhart,  a  successful  Michigan  grower,  says  that  he 
has  had  best  results  with  the  following:  *Early  Richmond; 
*Montmorency  ;  *English  Morello  ;  *Brusseller  Braune  ;  sweet 
varieties — *Gov.  Wood  ;  *Black  Tartarian  ;  *Windsor. 

G.  H.  Powell  and  L,.  H.  Bailey,  New  York  State  (where  there 
are  many  commercial  cherry  orchards),  recommend  these 
varieties :  I^ouis  Phillipe  ;  *Montmorency  ;  *English  Morello ; 
^Windsor;  *Napoleon;  *Black  Tartarian;  *Black  Eagle; 
*Mezel ;  *Robert's  Red  Heart ;  *Downer's  L,ate  Red  ;  Gov.  Wood  ; 
Coe's  Transparent ;  Belle  d'Orleans  ;  Rockport ;  Knight's  Early 
Black  ;  Yellow  Spanish  ;  May  Duke. 


OLDMIXON  FREE 


SALWAY 
(FRUIT  NOT  THINNED) 


MOUNTAIN   ROSE 


CHAPTER  XII. 


THE  PEACH. 


FOUR  HALF-POUND  BEAUTIES 


A  farm  -without  some  Peach  trees  is  like  milk  without  cream. — Tim. 

The  peach  is  not  a  native  of  America.  Probably 
the  peach  originated  in  China;  from  thence  it  went 
to  Persia  and  to  Europe. 

PROPAGATION.  —  Bud 
known  varieties  on  to 
seedling  peach  stocks, 
close  to  the  ground.  A 
thrifty  tree  one  year  from 
the  bud  is  the  right  size 
to  set.  When  buying 
trees,  choose  medium  size, 
straight  ones  ;  let  the 
big,  overgrown  fellows  alone.  (Note :  Plums  are 
sometimes  used  for  stocks,  if  the  peach  orchard  must 
be  planted  on  rather  heavy,  damp  soil.) 

VARIETIES  WHICH  ARE  OFTEN  SEI,F-STERII<E. — 

Under  this  heading  S.  W.  Fletcher  lists  only  one  kind 
of  peach,  viz. — the  Susquehanna. 

PRUNING. — Of  all  fruit  trees  the  peach  seems 
to  need  the  most  trimming  (the  dwarf  pear  is 
a  close  second  in  this  respect).  Each  season  the 
trees  should  be  pruned  —  cutting  them  back  and 
thinning  them  out,  both.  Cutting  off  one-half  or 
two-thirds  of  the  new  growth  each  year,  is  not 
too  much.  Remember  that  the  peach  (unlike  the 

(95) 


96  BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 

apple,  cherry,  plum,  and  pear)  produces  its  fruit 
on  wood  of  the  preceding-  year, — that  is,  on  one- 
year-old  wood. 

SPECIAL,  CULTIVATION  HINTS. — The  peach,  to  be 
healthy  and  profitable,  must  be  cultivated.  In  this 
it  is  unlike  the  pear,  cherry,  etc., — which  sometimes 
do  fairly  well  in  sod.  Bxperienced  peach  growers  do 
not,  as  a  rule,  plow  a  bearing  peach  orchard  until 
after  it  has  blossomed.  Why  not?  For  the  same 
reason  that  they  often  choose  a  north  slope — to  retard, 
so  far  as  is  possible,  the  blossoming  period  with  its 
liability  to  early  frost  injury.  Remember  that  no 
tree  will  die  so  quickly  from  ' '  wet  feet ' '  as  will  the 
peach  (unless  it  is  the  cherry). 

PRINCIPAL  INSECT  PESTS. — Aphis  (lice):  See 
preceding  chapter. 

Borers  :  The  peach-tree  borer  is  the  most  common 
pest  in  this  line,  although  the  flat-headed  borers  of 
the  apple  and  cherry  sometimes  (not  often)  attack  the 
peach.  For  remedies,  see  Chapter  IX. 

Curculio  :  The  plum  curculio  often  stings  peaches. 

Fruit-bark  beetle  :  A  small  black  beetle  which  bores 
tiny  holes  into  the  bark  of  upper  twigs  and  limbs,  and 
then  forms  inner-bark  burrows.  This  causes  some  of 
the  infested  branches  to  wither  and  die.  Remedies  : 
This  beetle  is  most  apt  to  attack  unthrifty  trees ; 
therefore,  good  cultivation,  fertilization,  pruning,  etc., 
are  helpful.  Promptly  burn  all  cuttings,  so  that  the 
larvae  within  may  be  destroyed.  Early  sprayings 
with  the  Bordeaux-arsenical  mixture.  This  insect  is 
sometimes  called  the  ' '  pin  borer. ' ' 

San  Jose  scale  louse  :  Consult  Chapter  VIII. 


THE   PEACH  97 

The  snowy  tree  cricket  sometimes  punctures  new 
wood  ;  cut  off  and  burn  such  wood.  Rose  chafers  or 
bugs  occasionally  attack  fruit,  etc.  Knock  them  into 
pans  of  kerosene. 

PRINCIPAL,  FUNGOUS  PESTS.  —  Brown  rot:  See 
preceding  chapter  for  description  and  remedies. 
Besides  affecting  the  fruit  (and  sometimes  the 
blossoms),  this  fungus  often  injures  or  kills  the 
twigs,  as  well.  The  result  is  something  like  "twig 
blight, ' '  although  the  cause  is  different  from  the  true 
twig  blight  of  the  apple,  pear,  etc.  Thinning  the 
fruit  helps  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  rot. 

L,eaf-curl :  This  is,  some  seasons,  a  very  serious 
trouble  in  many  peach  orchards.  Shortly  after  the 
leaves  come  out  in  the  spring 
they  begin  to  curl,  soon  become  , 
distorted  and  misshapen,  and 
then  fall  off.  Thus  the  tree 
becomes  partially  or  wholly 
denuded  of  foliage,  the  immature 
fruit  is  likely  to  drop  off,  and  the 
vitality  of  the  tree  is,  of  course, 
more  or  less  injured  in  the  at- 
tempt to  perfect  a  second  and  PEACH  LEAF-CURL 
later  crop  of  leaves.  Some  varieties  seem  more 
subject  to  this  trouble  than  others ;  and  the 
disease  is  apt  to  be  worse  in  a  wet  season. 
Remedy:  Full-strength  Bordeaux  (or  lime-sulphur 
spray)  in  spring  before  buds  swell ;  when  blossoms 
have  fallen,  spray  with  half-strength  Bordeaux;  if 
necessary,  repeat  with  half-strength  Bordeaux  two 
weeks  later. 


98  BIGGI.K   ORCHARD   BOOK 

Scab  :  Somewhat  similar  to  apple  scab.    Bordeaux. 

MISCELLANEOUS  TROUBLES. —  Crown  Gall:  See 
Chapter  III. 

Gum :  Caused  by  borers,  bruises,  and  fungus. 
Common  on  peach,  cherry  and  plum  trees. 

"  Little  Peach  "  :  Very  little  is  known  of  this  dis- 
ease, and  it  is  as  yet  common  in  only  a  few  localities. 
The  name  is  quite  expressive  of  the  symptoms  ;  the 
fruit  remains  small  and  tough,  the  tree  seems  un- 
healthy, the  leaves  seem  smaller  than  is  natural,  and 
finally  the  tree  dies.  The  disease  spreads  from  one 
tree  to  another.  The  only  known  remedy  is  to  pull 
out  the  infected  trees  at  once,  and  burn  them. 

Peach  '  *  rosette  "  is  a  disease  of  the  peach  in  the 
southern  states.  Its  effects  on  the  tree  are  similar  to 
those  of  yellows,  and,  like  that  disease,  it  is  to  be 
controlled  only  by  the  destruction  of  affected  trees. 

Sun-scald  :  Consult  Chapter  IX.  Some  folks  call 
this  trouble  ' 'frost- crack  "  when  it  occurs  during 
freezing  weather. 

* '  Sun-scorch  ' '  of  foliage  sometimes  occurs  during 
a  drouth,  or  when  hot,  dry  winds  blow.  Regular 
cultivation  is  a  partial  preventive  of  sun-scorch. 

' '  Yellows ' '  :  This  is  probably  the  most  serious  foe 
that  the  peach  grower  has  to  contend  with,  — unless 
it  be  the  San  Jose  scale  louse.  It  is  a  communicable 
disease  ;  it  is  always  fatal  within  a  few  years  ;  and  it 
attacks  both  old  and  young  trees,  and  seemingly  has 
an  especial  fondness  for  healthy,  vigorous  trees.  No 
cure  is  known,  and  the  exact  nature  of  the  disease 
has  not  yet  been  determined.  In  bearing  trees  the 
premature  ripening  of  the  fruit  is  one  of  the  first 


THE  PEACH  99 

indications  of  the  presence  of  "yellows,"  says  B.  O. 
Longyear.  Such  fruits  are  also  highly  colored,  pos- 
sessing red  spots  and  streaks 
which  often  extend  from  the 
surface  to  the  pit,  the  flesh 
being  marbled  and  streaked 
with  red.  The  buds  formed  dur- 
ing the  summer,  for  growth  the 
next  season,  are  also  sometimes 
prematurely  unfolded.  But  the 
most  characteristic  feature  is 
the  growth  of  bunches  of 
slender,  twiggy  branches  dur- 
ing  the  summer  and  autumn,  from  the  crotches  and 
upon  the  older  branches.  These  wiry  shoots  bear 
narrow  sickly  leaves  of  a  yellow  color,  and,  being 
produced  in  clusters,  give  a  characteristic  appear- 
ance to  infected  trees.  '  *  Yellows  ' '  laws,  requiring 
the  prompt  destruction  and  burning  of  infected  trees, 
are  strictly  enforced  in  most  peach  localities,  and  in 
this  way  the  disease  has,  of  late  years,  been  success- 
fully held  in  check. 

COMPLETE  SPRAYING  SYSTEM. — A  combination 
system  for  fungi  and  most  insects  would  be  about  as 
follows  :  First  spray,  full-strength  Bordeaux-arsenical 
mixture  just  before  buds  swell ;  second  spray,  after 
blossoms  fall  and  fruit  has  set,  half-strength  Bor- 
deaux and  arsenate  of  lead ;  third  spray,  half-strength 
Bordeaux-arsenate  when  fruit  is  half  grown  ;  if  rot 
threatens  fruit,  repeat  half-strength  Bordeaux  spray, 
one  or  more  times,  at  intervals  of  about  ten  days  or 
two  weeks.  (Special  note  :  If  the  trees  receive  a 


100  BIGGLE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

lime-sulphur  treatment  for  San  Jose  in  early  spring, 
the  first  Bordeaux  application  will  not  be  needed.  If 
desired,  the  later  Bordeaux  sprays  may  be  replaced 
— many  growers  say  with  advantage — by  the  self-boiled 
lime-sulphur  mixture.) 

VARIETIES. — Those  marked  with  a  star  are  espe- 
cially suited  for  market. 

K.  B.  Wilkerson,  a  prominent  Missouri  grower,  gives  this 
list :  Amsden  ;  Heath  Cling ;  Crawford's  Early ;  *Crawford's 
Ivate  ;  Stump  ;  *Croaby  ;  *Champion  ;  *Elberta ;  *Woiiderful ; 
Triumph. 

Wilmer  Atkinson's  favorite  list  is  :  Mountain  Rose  ;  Cham- 
pion ;  *Moore's  Favorite  ;  *Reeve's  Favorite  ;  *Stump  the  World  ; 
*Elberta ;  *Crawford's  I,ate ;  Ward's  lyate ;  Chair's  Choice ;  Globe ; 
*Stnock  Free. 

George  T.  Powell,  for  a  commercial  orchard  in  New  York, 
would  plant:  Champion;  Carman;  Belle  of  Georgia;  Oldmixon 
Free ;  Stump  ;  Fox  Seedling.  The  list  might  need  modifying 
somewhat,  according  to  the  location  in  the  state. 

For  very  cold  climates,  Hill's  Chili,  Champion  and  Crosby 
are  perhaps  the  most  hardy  variety.  But  the  only  sure  way  of 
growing  a  family  supply  of  peaches  in  such  localities,  is  to  "  lay 
down  "  the  trees  each  fall,  and  cover  them  over  with  earth,  leaves, 
straw,  or  other  protection.  Such  trees  should  be  trained  flat- 
shaped.  Cut  the  roots  on  one  side ;  then  pull  the  tree  to  the 
ground  and  stake  it  there.  In  the  spring,  right  it;  put  the  earth 
back  in  place ;  fertilize,  cultivate,  etc. 

J.  N.  Stearns,  a  prominent  western  Michigan  grower,  writes : 
— If  I  were  to  plant  another  commercial  peach  orchard  of,  say, 
1,000  trees,  I  should  set  250  Kalamazoo,  250  Golden  Drop,  250 
Smock  and  250  Sal  way.  These  sorts  have  brought  me  more 
money,  for  the  last  twenty-five  years,  than  any  others.  Elberta 
is  too  unreliable.  Golden  Drop  should  be  severely  pruned  and 
thinned.  (Please  note  that  this  successful  peach  grower  includes 
no  white-flesh  varieties  in  his  list.  Many  markets  and  buyers 
prefer  yellow-flesh  peaches.— J.  B.) 

J.  H.  Hale,  the  famous  peach  grower  who  has  enormous 
orchards  in  Connecticut  and  Georgia,  writes  that  his  favorite 
list  for  a  succession  from  early  to  late  in  Connecticut,  is  as  fol- 
lows:  *Greensboro;  *Waddell ;  *Carman ;  *Hiley  ;  "Champion; 
*Belle  of  Georgia  ;  *Elberta  ;  *Chair's  Choice  ;  *Steveii's.  Cut 
out  Chair's  Choice  and  Steven's,  and  the  list  is  a  "cream  one" 
for  Georgia,  adds  Mr.  Hale  in  his  letter.  (The  peach  crop  must 
be  gathered  promptly  when  ripe,  or  loss  results ;  therefore,  in 
large  orchards,  planting  varieties  which  ripen  in  succession 
through  a  long  season  is  highly  desirable  and  essential. — J.  ^.) 


PLATE    XIII 

SHELDON 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


THE   PEAR. 


There* 's  money  in  Pears  for  the  man  who  knows  how  to  set  it  out. 

Ever  since  this  country  was  first  settled,  pears 
from  European  stock  have  been  grown  here.  They 
thrive  especially  well  in  the  eastern,  central  and  far 
western  states,  and  less  well  in  the  southern  and 
prairie  states.  Wherever  the  climate  is  very  cold  or 


A  FORTY-ACRE  FEAJl  QJl.C^'ARlf  „  ,     _      -  ,  ,,,     . 

very    hot,    there    commercial    pear    culture    becomes 
uncertain   or  unsatisfactory. 

PROPAGATION.  —  Standard    pears   are    budded    or 

grafted  on  seedling  pear  stocks,  at  a  point  near  the 

crown.      Nurserymen   usually   import   seedling   pear 

stocks  from   France,  but  it  is  not   difficult  to  grow 

(101) 


102  BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

seedlings  for  one's  own  use.  When  buying  nursery 
trees  for  setting,  choose  medium  -  size,  straight,  low- 
headed,  two-year-olds. 

Soii^S. — The  ideal  pear  soil  is  a  rather  heavy  clay- 
loam,  with  a  well-drained  subsoil.  Heavy  clay  does 
very  well  if  the  underdrainage  is  sufficient.  Light 
or  sandy  soils  are  not  so  good  for  this  fruit. 

VARIETIES  WHICH  ARE  OFTEN  SEI,F-STERII,E.— 
S.  W.  Fletcher,  of  the  Cornell,  N.  Y.,  Experiment 
Station,  gives  this  list :  ' '  Duchess  ;  Bartlett ;  Clapp  ; 
Idaho;  Kieffer ;  Nelis."  (Moral:  Don't  set  solid, 
large  blocks  of  any  one  of  these  varieties,  —  nor  of 
any  other  kind.) 

PRUNING.  —  Cut  back  and  thin  out,  moderately, 
each  season.  Always  cut  back  to  a  bud  or  a  branch, 
so  as  not  to  leave  a  stub.  Pruning  tools  which  are 
used  on  blighted  trees,  should  be  disinfected  before 
being  used  again.  The  pear  produces  its  fruit  on 
fruit  spurs  or  wood  several  years  old. 

SPECIAL  CUI/TURAI,  DIRECTIONS.  —  Too  much 
cultivation  is  often  dangerous  to  pear  trees  (see  fire- 
blight) .  After  a  newt  orchard  has  made  a  good  growth 
fearpf  it  is  often  advisable  to  seed  down 
land  ^(pefiiiinfeiitly  or  temporarily) ,  so  as  to 
jBtop  •^xeessiyp  wpoA  growth.  Likewise,  it  is  usually 
^jrjideht/to  slop  cultivation  earlier  in  the  season  than 
is  customary  with  other  trees  (this  plan — with  an 
early-sown  cover-crop  —  will  often  do  away  with  the 
necessity  of  seeding  down  the  orchard).  The  same 
caution  extends  to  fertilizers.  Too  much  nitrogen 
means  too  much  wood  growth  ;  therefore  use  more 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  less  stable  manure. 


THE   PEAR  103 

The  safest  source  of  nitrogen  supply  is  from  occasional 
nitrogenous  cover  crops. 

SUN-SCALD. — See  Chapter  IX. 

PRINCIPAL  INSECT  PESTS.  —  Borers :  The  true 
pear-tree  borer  is  something  like  the  peach-tree  borer, 
only  smaller  and  seldom  so  troublesomely  numerous. 
The  round-headed  and  flat-headed  apple-tree  borers 
also  attack  pear  trees  sometimes.  See  Chapter  IX. 

Codling  moth:  Often  attacks  pears  as  well  as  apples. 
Consult  Chapter  X  for  description  and  remedies. 

Midge  :  A  small,  grayish,  long-legged  fly  which 
early  in  spring  deposits  its  eggs  inside  the  pear 
blossoms.  The  eggs  rapidly  hatch  into  tiny  worms 
which  enter  the  baby  fruits  and  feed  upon  them, 
causing  them  to  stop  growing  or  to  become  misshapen. 
During  the  summer  these  worms  leave  the  fruit,  fall 
to  the  ground,  enter  therein,  and  make  cocoons. 
Remedies  :  Sprays  seem  of  little  account  in  fighting 
this  pest.  The  best  remedy  I  have  seen  suggested,  is 
to  apply  about  1,000  pounds  of  kainit,  per  acre,  to  the 
infested  orchard  ground  in  June.  This  potash  salt 
(it's  a  good  fertilizer)  is  dissolved  by  rains,  soaks  into 
the  ground,  and  kills  the  larvae. 

Oyster-shell  bark  louse  :  Sometimes  attacks  pears  as 
well  as  apples.  For  remedies,  consult  Chapter  VIII. 
Pear-leaf  mite  or  "blister":  A  minute  spider-like 
insect  which  infests  leaves  early  in  the  season,  causing 
blisters  or  galls  thereon, — reddish  in  color  at  first, 
gradually  turning  to  a  dark  brown  later  in  the  summer. 
Remedies  :  Spraying  the  leaves  does  little  good.  But, 
as  the  insects  hibernate  on  the  tree  bark,  I  think  that 
the  lime-sulphur  spray,  applied  before  buds  swell^. 
would  kill  mites,  scale  lice,  and  fungus. 


104  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

Pear-tree  psylla :  A  tiny,  jumping  louse,  yellowish 
in  color,  that  attacks  tender  leaves  and  shoots,  causing 
them  to  droop  and  exude  sap  or  honey  dew,  —  which 
condition  soon  attracts  flies  and  ants  to  the  feast. 
Entire  orchards  have  sometimes  been  ruined,  in  a  few 
years,  by  this  pest.  Remedies:  Lime-sulphur,  or 
kerosene  emulsion,  sprayed  on  the  trees  early  in 
spring  before  buds  swell ;  followed  by  tobacco  solution 
sprays  in  May  or  June. 

San  Jose  scale  louse  :  See  Chapter  VIII. 

Scurfy  scale  louse  :  See  Chapter  VIII. 

Slug :  The  pear-tree  slug  is  about  half  an  inch,  or 
less,  in  length  when  full  grown  ;  darkish  color ;  slimy 
appearance.  It  eats  the  upper  portion  of  leaves.  This 
pest  comes  from  eggs  laid  by  a  black  fly.  There  are 
two  broods  of  the  slugs, — one  in  late  June  or  early 
July,  and  another  in  August.  Remedies  :  Almost  any 
of  the  standard  sprays  will  kill  slugs  ;  in  fact,  they  are 
very  easily  destroyed.  A  simple  remedy  would  be 
two  ounces  of  fresh  white  hellebore  steeped  in  one  gal- 
lon of  water  and  sprayed  on  leaves  when  slugs  are 
there.  Or  arsenate  of  lead  would  do.  Or,  fine  dry 
road-dust  or  air-slaked  lime,  thrown  or  blown  into  the 
trees,  will  kill  every  slug  it  covers. 

PRINCIPAL  FUNGOUS  PESTS. —  Leaf-blight:  This 
very  common  and  serious  disease  produces,  on  the 
leaves  in  the  spring,  reddish  spots ;  these  gradually 
enlarge  and  turn  brown,  until  all  or  a  large  part  of 
each  affected  leaf  appears  dark  and  dead.  Badly 
injured  leaves  soon  drop  off,  and  in  this  way  the 
trees  may  lose  most  or  all  of  their  foliage — which 
.gives  them  a  bad  setback.  The  fungus  also  attacks 


THE   PEAR  105 

stems  and  fruit.  It  produces  ugly,  hard,  scabby- 
looking  places  on  the  fruit,  frequently  causing  it  to 
crack  open.  Remedy  :  Spray  the  trees  with  Bordeaux 
before  blossoms  open  ;  repeat,  after  blossoms  have 
fallen  ;  repeat,  once  or  twice  more,  at  intervals  of 
two  or  three  weeks.  This  trouble  should  not  be 
confused  with  the  disease  called  pear  or  "fire" 
blight,  which  attacks  the  limbs  of  trees. 

Scab  :  Scabby  fruit  is  usually  caused  by  leaf  blight 
A  very  similar  disease — apple  scab — may  attack  pears. 

"FiRE"  OR  PEAR  BRIGHT. — This  is  a  bacterial 
disease  which  injures  or  kills  thousands  of  trees  every 
year.  It  is  to  the  pear  orchard  what  the  "yellows" 
is  to  the  peach  orchard — a  deadly,  relentless,  not 
thoroughly  mastered,  enemy.  Whatever  it  touches  it 
blackens  and  "burns," — leaves,  blossoms,  fruit  and 
branches  wither  at  its  approach.  It  sometimes  walks 
down  a  pear  tree  limb  at  the  rate  of  from  one  to 
twelve  inches  a  day  ;  usually  only  two  or  three  inches, 
or  less.  One  can  easily  recognize  the  disease.  Watch 
the  trees  carefully  during  the  growing  season,  and 
amputate  attacked  limbs  at  once.  Have  a  bottle  of 
alcohol,  and  dip  the  tool  in  it  after  each  amputation  ; 
it  kills  the  blight  germs  that  will  cling  to  any  imple- 
ment and  which  may  infect  the  next  tree  that  is  treated. 
Always  cut  well  below  the  affected  part  of  branch. 
Burn  all  cuttings,  promptly.  This  disease  is  more 
apt  to  attack  fast-growing  than  slow-growing  trees, 
therefore  an  important  part  of  the  treatment  is  to  avoid 
a  too  stimulating  method  of  fertilization  and  cultivation. 

COMBINATION  SPRAYING  SYSTEM.— The  best  sys- 
tem yet  devised  for  most  insect  and  fungous  troubles, 


106  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

is  as  follows  :  Spray  trees  just  before  blossoms  open, 
with  Bordeaux  ;  after  blossoms  have  fallen,  Bordeaux- 
arsenical  mixture ;  two  or  three  weeks  later,  Bor- 
deaux; if  season  is  wet  and  leaf -blight  prevalent, 
repeat  Bordeaux  two  weeks  later.  (Special  note  :  If 
scale  lice  are  present,  or  pear-leaf  mite,  or  psylla, 
begin  spraying  operations  by  applying  lime-sulphur 
very  early  in  the  spring  before  buds  swell.  If  desired, 
the  later  Bordeaux  sprays  may  be  replaced  by  the 
self-boiled  lime-sulphur  mixture. 

VARIETIES. — Those  marked  with  a  star  are  espe- 
cially suited  for  market. 

M.  J.  Graham,  an  Iowa  fruit-grower,  has  had  best  succes.', 
with  *Iyongworth  ;  *Kieffer  ;  *Warner. 

For  Virginia,  H.  I,.  Price  recommends  :  Summer  Doyenne  ; 
Rose  ;  Clapp  ;  *Bartlett ;  I,awrence ;  Sheldon. 

For  Illinois,  just  three  commercial  varieties  are  recommended 
by  R.  O.  Graham :  *Kieffer  ;  *Garber ;  *Duchess. 

For  the  southern  states — Mississippi,  Alabama,  etc. — W  H. 
Ragan  recommends :  *Kieffer ;  I,e  Conte ;  Garber  ;  Archangel. 

For  California,  E.  J.Wickson  recommends  :  *Clapp ;  *Comice ; 
*  Anjou;  *Clairgeau ;  *Bartlett;  *Easter ;  *P.  Barry;  *Winter 
Nelis ;  etc. 

Wilmer  Atkinson  suggests  for  Pennsylvania,  etc.:  Manning's 
Elizabeth  ;  *Howell ;  *Bartlett ;  *Seckel ;  Dana's  Hovey  ;  I,aw- 
rence  ;  Anjou  ;  Duchess  ;  *Kieffer ;  Winter  Nelis. 

B.  G.  Green,  a  successful  Michigan  grower,  writes  :  If  I  were 
to  plant  another  commercial  pear  orchard  of  1,000  trees  I  should 
-et:  650  Bartlett,  150  Clapp's  Favorite,  100  Anjou,  50  Flemish 


Beauty  and  50  Bosc. 


For  cold  districts  — Maine,  northern  Vermont,  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  etc. — Pomologist  W.  H.  Ragan  suggests  the  follow- 
ing :  Vermont  Beauty  ;  Flemish  Beauty  ;  Wilder  Early  ;  *Besse- 
mianka.  (At  the  best,  pear  culture  is  precarious  in  very  cold 
climates.  Banking  earth  high  up  around  tree  trunks  and  holding- 
it  in  place  with  boards,  during  the  winter,  is  a  great  help.— J,  B.) 


BRADSHAW 


PLATE    XIV 


RED  JUNE 


YELLOW   EGG 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE  PLUM. 


If  it  wasn't  for  the  curculio,  Jack  Homer  would  find  it  easier  to 
Put  his  thumb  into  a  Pie  and  Pull  out  a  plum. — Tim. 

Generally  speaking,  plum  culture  comprises  several 
types  or  classes,  viz. — European  (Prunus  domesticd] ; 
Japanese  (Prunus  triflord] ;  American  (Prunus  Amer- 
icana ;  Prunus  hortulana] ,  comprising  Wild  Goose 
and  similar  native  varieties  ;  and  Prunus  Chicasa 
comprising  the  Chickasaw  native  types  of  our  south- 
ern states.  One  or  two  other  types  are  not  of  sufficient 
importance  to  mention  here. 

PROPAGATION. —  Budding  is  the  common  method, 
on  seedling  plum  stocks.  These  may  be  grown  at 
home.  Nurserymen,  however,  generally  use  Myro- 
balan,  Marianna,  or  other  imported  plum  stocks, 
because  it  is  not  easy  to  secure  sufficient  seed  for 
extensive  planting.  Plums  are  sometimes  budded  on 
seedling  peach  stocks, — particulary  in  the  south  and 
for  dry,  sandy  locations.  Americana  varieties  usually 
do  best  if  budded  on  their  own  seedlings. 

SELECTING  NURSERY  TREES.  —Two-year-old  trees 
are  about  right.  Fast  ^growing  varieties  are  some- 
times ready  for  planting  when  only  one  year  old 
from  the  bud. 

Soii,s. — Plums  do  well  almost  anywhere, — if  the 
ground  is  not  too  wet.  This  fruit,  however,  will 
stand  much  more  moisture  than  the  peach  or  cherry. 
(107) 


108  BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 

A  clay-loam,  rather  moist  but  without  stagnant  sub- 
soil water,  would  be  ideal  for  the  European  and 
native  varieties.  The  Japanese  kinds  do  very  well 
on  a  lighter  soil. 

VARIETIES  WHICH  ARE  OFTEN  SEL.F-STERIL.E. — 
S.  W.  Fletcher  says  under  this  heading  in  Bulletin 
181,  Cornell  Experiment  Station:  "Coe's  Golden 
Drop,  French  Prune,  Italian  Prune,  Kelsey,  Miner, 
Marianna,  Ogon,  Peach  Plum,  Satsuma,  Wild  Goose, 
and  (according  to  Waugh  and  Kerr)  all  other  varieties 
of  native  plums  except  Robinson." 

PRUNING. — The  plum  requires  more  pruning  than 
the  cherry,  and  not  so  much  as  the  peach.  Upright- 
growing  varieties  require  one  style  of  pruning ; 
sprawling  kinds  (like  Burbank)  require  another. 
The  trees  may  have  a  central  leader,  or  be  trained  in 
the  open-centre,  vase-like  style.  Some  varieties 
require  more  cutting-back  than  others.  Study  your 
trees.  Plum  fruits,  like  cherries,  are  mostly  borne 
on  fruit  spurs  which  are  at  least  two  years  old. 

PRINCIPAL  INSECT  PESTS. — Aphis  (lice):  See 
Chapter  X. 

Borers  :  The  plum-tree  borer  sometimes  infests  the 
base  of  main  limbs  and  the  upper  part  of  trunk.  The 
peach-tree  borer,  etc.,  occasionally  attacks  plum  trees. 
Remedies  :  See  Chapter  IX. 

Curculio :  A  tiny,  hump-backed,  fly- 
ing insect  (see  illustration)  which  stings 
CURCULIO       the  fr"ult  shortly  after  blossoming  time. 
(ENLARGED)     it  makes  crescent-shape  punctures  and 
deposits  eggs  therein.     These  soon  hatch  into  little 
grubs.     Most  of    the   stung  fruit   falls   off    the    tree 


THE   PLUM  109 

before  ripe.  The  curculio  is  sometimes  called  the 
"Little  Turk, "  on  account  of  the  crescent-shape  trade 
mark  it  leaves  on  fruit ;  in  size,  this  insect  is  about 
three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  length.  Remedies  : 
Bordeaux-arsenical  mixture  sprayed  on  trees  just 
before  blossoms  open  ;  repeat  the  same  after  blossoms 
fall ;  repeat,  once  or  twice  more,  at  intervals  of  a  week. 
Destroy  all  fallen  fruit.  Also,  a  flock  of  chickens  in 
a  plum  orchard  is  a  great  help.  But  the  surest  one 
remedy  is  the  jarring  process.  Rig  up  a  cloth-covered 
frame  (like  an  inverted  umbrella) ,  mount  it  on  wheels, 
and  jar  the  curculios  into  it  so  they  can  be  collected 
and  killed  (see  picture).  The  jarring  is  best  done 
(during  the  cool  of  early  morn- 
ing) by  tapping  the  tree  briskly 
with  a  padded,  long-handled  « 
mallet.  The  insects,  sluggish 
with  cold  or  heavy  with  dew, 
drop  into  the  frame  below, 
instead  of  flying  away.  This  jarring  process  should 
be  repeated  every  morning  or  so,  as  long  as  the 
curculios  are  plentiful. 

Plum  gouger :  A  small  snout -beetle  without  a 
hump  on  its  back.  Much  like  the  curculio  in  its 
habits  and  the  effect  on  the  fruit.  It  punctures  the 
fruit,  but  does  not  make  a  crescent  -  shape  mark. 
Remedies  are  the  same  as  advised  for  curculio. 

Plum  scale  :    Consult  Chapter  VIII. 

San  Jose  scale  louse  :    Consult  Chapter  VIII. 

PRINCIPAL  FUNGOUS  PESTS.  —  Black  knot :  See 
Chapter  XI.  These  dark,  warty  -  looking  knots  or 
bunches  on  branches  need  prompt  attention. 


110  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

Brown  rot :   Consult  Chapter  XI. 

Leaf -blight  or  spot:  Often  called  "shot -hole" 
fungus.  See  Chapter  XI. 

Plum  pockets :  A  fungous  disease  which  causes 
the  fruit  to  become  distorted,  enlarged  and  unhealthy ; 
finally  it  turns  dark  in  color,  becomes  wrinkled,  and 
drops  off  the  tree.  No  pits  are  found  in  these  diseased 
fruits.  Remedies  :  Early  sprayings  with  Bordeaux  ; 
prune  the  trees  and  cut  off  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
wood  which  bears  diseased  fruit. 

COMBINATION  SPRAYING  SYSTEM.  —  For  most 
insects  (except  borers,  lice,  etc.),  and  all  fungous 
pests,  I  suggest  that  you  turn  to  Chapter  XII  and 
use  the  complete  system  there  advocated  for  peaches. 

BARK -BURST,  SUN-SCAI,D,  GUM. — See  Chapters 
IX,  XI  and  XII. 

VARIETIES. — Those  marked  with  a  star  are  espe- 
cially suited  for  market. 

R.  O.  Graham,  an  Illinois  plum  grower,  has  had  best  success 
with  :  *Wild  Goose  ;  *Miner  ;  *Wolf ;  *De  Soto. 

E.  Iy.  Mason,  Missouri,  has  had  good  success  with  :  *Green 
Gage  ;  *L,ombard  ;  *Niagara ;  *Shipper's  Pride  ;  *Damson  ;  etc. 

For  Alabama,  Mississippi,  etc.,  W.  H.  Ragan  recommends: 
*Chabot ;  *Cumberland  ;  *Golden  Beauty ;  Red  June ;  Yellow 
Transparent ;  *Abundance  ;  *Burbank  ;  *Kelsey  ;  etc. 

For  a  commercial  orchard  in  New  York,  George  T.  Powell 
recommends :  *Reine  Claude ;  *Giant  Prune :  *Peter's  Yellow 
Gage  ;  *Quackenboss  ;  *Fellemberg  ;  *German  Prune. 

For  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Connecticut,  etc.,  Pomol- 
ogist  W.  H.  Ragan  suggests :  *Reine Claude (Bavay's  Green  Gage); 
*Bradshaw  ;  *Coe1s  Golden  Drop  ;  *Damson  ;  Black  Diamond  ; 
*German  Prune  ;  *Grand  Duke  ;  Gueii ;  Imperial  Gage  ;  Yellow 
Egg;  *Fellemberg  (Italian  Prune);  *I,ombard;  *Quackenboss ;  etc. 


DUCHESS 


PLATE  XV 


ANJOU 


CHAPTER  xv. 


THE  QUINCE  AND  DWARF  PEAR. 


They  aren't  bis  trees,  but  there's  a  lot  of  them  to  the  acre. 


Quince  culture,  except  in  a  small  way,  is  not  very 
popular.  A  few  commercial  orchards  are  to  be  found, 
here  and  there,  and  the  fruit  brings  fair  prices  when- 
ever the  supply  is  not  overlarge.  As  the  fruit  'is 
practically  uneatable  in  a  raw  state,  it  is  in  demand 
only  for  canning,  for  marmalade,  etc.,  and  for  flavor- 
ing preserves,  etc.  There  is  no  more  beautiful  sight 
than  a  quince  tree  in  blossom.  Every  family  should 
have  at  least  a  few  of  the  trees. 

PROPAGATION. — Any  one  of  several  methods  may 
be  used :  Budding,  with  quince  seedlings  for  stock ; 
grafting,  on  apple  roots;  layering;  and  making  cut- 
tings of  ripened  wood  for  planting  (in  nursery  rows) 
like  currant  or  grape  cuttings.  Cuttings  should  be 
taken  in  the  fall,  in  about  ten-inch  lengths,  tied  in 
bundles,  and  stored  away  like  scions  until  spring.  Or 
they  may  be  planted  in  the  fall,  and  protected  with 
mulch.  I  do  not  recommend  layering. 

Cui/ruRAi,  HINTS. — Quinces  do  best  on  a  moist 
(but  well  underdrained)  clay-loam.  However,  they 
will  grow  fairly  well  on  almost  any  soil  which  is  not 
too  wet.  Thorough  tillage  is  desirable.  But  remem- 
ber that  these  trees  are  shallow  rooted ;  do  not  plow 
too  deep.  Winter  cover  crops  of  some  kind  are 
essential ;  they  help  to  keep  the  roots  from  frost 
(ill) 


112  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

injury.  Pruning-  should  be  systematic.  Head  back 
the  new  growth  in  the  spring,  or  thin  it  out,  or  both, 
— as  may  be  required  to  maintain  a  shapely,  well- 
balanced  tree.  There  is  no  sense  in  thinking  that 
quinces  must  necessarily  be  straggling,  misshapen 
bushes.  Start  with  a  straight  stem  two  feet  high, 
have  the  head  open  and  well  branched, — and  you  can 
make  the  tree  as  shapely  as  you  please.  The  fruit  is 
produced  on  little  shoots  which  grow  in  spring  on 
wood  that  is  at  least  two  years  old.  Keep  all  suckers 
cut  off  from  around  the  trunk. 

PRINCIPAL  INSECT  AND  FUNGOUS  PESTS. — The 
codling  moth,  the  quince  curculio,  the  round-headed 
apple-tree  borer,  the  pear-tree  slug  and  the  pear-tree 
blister  mite,  all  bother  quince  trees  more  or  less. 
Remedies  have  been  given  in  preceding  chapters. 
There,  too,  you  will  find  hints  about  leaf  blight,  rust, 
rot,  twig  blight  and  fire  blight, — all  of  which  are  well- 
known  enemies  of  the  quince.  The  quince  should 
be  frequently  sprayed  with  the  Bordeaux-arsenical 
mixture,  or  with  the  self-boiled  lime-sulphur. 

VARIETIES. — Comparatively  few  kinds  are  grown. 
Probably  the  best,  for  almost  any  locality,  would  be : 
Orange  ;  Rea ;  Meech  ;  Champion. 

DWARF  PEAR. 

If  properly  grown  and  cared  for,  these  trees  are 
thrifty,  productive,  long-lived  and  profitable.  But  if 
neglected,  they  are  equally  short-lived  and  worthless. 
I  know  of  several  dwarf-pear  orchards  that  are  now 
twenty  to  forty  years  old,  which  began  bearing  fruit 
when  about  four  years  old,  and  which  are  still  healthy 


THE   QUINCE   AND    DWARF   PKAR 


113 


and  productive.  They  have  rarely  if  ever  missed  a 
crop. 

PROPAGATION. — By  budding  the  pear  on  quince 
seedlings,  dwarf-growing  pear  trees  result.  But  the 
fruit  is  not  dwarfed  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  unusually 
large  and  fine,  and  the  trees  come  into  bearing  much 
sooner  than  standard  pears. 

Cui/TURAiy  HINTS. — The  best  soil  is  a  moist  clay 
or  clay-loam  soil,  thoroughly  underdrained.  Cultiva- 
tion, fertilization,  spraying,  pruning,  etc.,  must  be 


A   MICHIGAN   DWARF-PEAR  ORCHARD 

systematic  and  thorough.  Unlike  the  standard  pear, 
the  dwarf  never  does  even  "fairly  well"  in  sod. 
When  setting  the  trees,  be  sure  to  set  them  very 
deep, — so  that  the  bud  joint  will  be,  say,  six  inches 


114  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

below  the  surface.  If  thus  set  the  trees  are  less  likely 
to  break  off  at  the  joint  (which  is  always  a  weak  spot 
in  dwarf  pears) ;  and,  too,  deep  setting  will  encourage 
the  pear  wood  to  send  out  some  roots  of  its  own, 
which  adds  to  the  vigor  and  stability  of  the  trees. 

PRUNING. — Dwarf  pears  need  a  great  deal  of  trim- 
ming, —  principally  ' '  cutting  back. ' '  And  they  need 
it  regularly  each  year.  About  two-thirds  or  three- 
quarters  of  the  new  growth  should  be  cut  off  annually, 
—  making  the  cut  each  time  to  buds  which  point  out- 
ward, so  as  to  broaden  the  trees.  Tall,  spindling 
trees  have  little  ' '  bearing  surface, ' '  and,  besides,  such 
trees  are  more  apt  to  blow  down  during  heavy  wind 
storms.  (Windbreaks  are  a  specially  good  thing  for 
all  dwarf  pears. ) 

INSECT  AND  FUNGOUS  ENEMIES. — The  same  pests 
that  trouble  the  standard  pear,  also  bother  the  dwarf. 
Consult  Chapter  XIII. 

VARIETIES. —  Only  a  few  varieties  of  pears  do 
especially  well  as  dwarfs. 

I,.  T.  Yeomans,  whose  dwarf-pear  orchard  is  about  fifty  years 
old,  expresses  a  decided  preference  for  the  Duchess  variety. 

I,.  H.  Bailey,  New  York,  says  that  the  most  successful 
kinds  are  Duchess,  Anjou,  Iconise  Bonne,  Manning's  Elizabeth 
and  Clairgeau. 

C.  S.  Mills,  a  Michigan  grower  who  has  been  remarkably  suc- 
cessful with  a  commercial  dwarf-pear  orchard,  writes  that  if  he 
were  going  to  set  another  dwarf  orchard  today,  he  would  plant 
six-tenths  *Duchess  trees,  three-tenths  *Anjou,  and  one-tenth 
*L,ouise  Bonne.  (I  do  not  think  this  list  can  be  much  improved 
for  any  section  of  the  country. — J.  B.) 


PLATE   XVI 


PARAGON     CHESTNUTS 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


NUT  TREES. 


It  seems  to  me  that  a  good  nut  orchard  is  worth  working  for. — Tim. 

The  almond  of  commerce  is  the  "soft  shell"  or 
* '  paper  shell ' '  type,  but  the  variety  is  too  tender  for 
satisfactory  orchard  growing  in  cold  sections  of  our 
country.  In  California,  etc.,  the  business  is  a  mod- 
erate success.  Occasional  trees  have  been  made  to  do 
fairly  well  in  northern  and  eastern  states  where  the 
peach  succeeds,  but,  without  protection,  such  attempts 
are  uncertain.  In  the  South,  the  trees  are  apt  to 
bloom  very  early  and  be  nipped  by  spring  frosts. 

BEECH  NuT. — This  well-known  forest  nut  is  hardly 
adapted  to  orchard  planting. 

BUTTERNUT  AND  BI.ACK  WALNUT. — These,  though 
very  useful  trees  in  their  way,  are  scarcely  in  the 
orchard  class  at  the  present  time.  Trees  are  usually 
propagated  by  raising  seedlings  from  choice  nuts.  I 
believe  that  more  of  these  trees  should  be  planted. 

CHESTNUT. — Now  we  come  to  a  species  of  nut 
which  has  distinct  commercial  possibilities  for  the 
average  American.  Mr.  Joseph  L.  Lovett,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, now  has  about  fifty  acres  on  his  own  farm 
planted  to  improved  chestnuts,  —  mostly  Paragons. 

Mr.  Lovett  plows  his  orchard  each  spring  and  then 
gives  the  soil  regular  cultivation  until  September 
first.  No  autumn  or  winter  cover  crop  is  planted, 
because  such  a  growth  would  interfere  with  the 

(115) 


116  BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

finding  of  the  nuts  when  they  fall  on  the  ground.  The 
trees  are  set  about  thirty  feet  apart  each  way ;  they 
begin  to  bear  when  quite  young,  and  are  not  pruned 
or  sprayed — unless  it  is  to  trim  up  an  occasional 
branch  that  droops  too  near  the  ground.  The  red 
spider  leaves  its  mark  on  the  foliage  every  season, 
but  Mr.  Lovett  says  that  he  ' '  pays  no  attention  ' '  to  this 
insect  pest. 


CLUSTER  OF  PARAGON  CHESTNUT  BURS 

The  weevil  has  found  its  way  into  the  Lovett 
groves.  But  not  in  force.  There  are  no  overlooked 
nuts,  no  stumps,  no  underbrush,  in  which  they  can 
breed ;  the  soil  is  frequently  cultivated,  all  the  nuts 
are  picked  up  each  season,  and,  consequently,  the 
weevil  has  not  proved  to  be  a  serious  pest  on  this  farm. 

When  harvesting  the  mits,  they  are  never  picked, 
knocked  or  shaken  off.  Mr.  L,ovett  waits  until  Jack 
Frost  loosens  the  crop. 


NUT  TREES  117 

4  *  Plow  a  chestnut  orchard  deeply, ' '  says  Mr. 
Lovett.  "You  should  endeavor,  in  every  way  pos- 
sible, to  encourage  a  large,  deep-growing  root  system. 
This  is  very  important. ' ' 

Some  nut-growers  are  taking  chestnut  stump  land, 
and  are  whip-grafting  Paragons,  etc.,  on  the  sprouts 
which  come  from  stumps.  Mr.  Lovett  says  that  this 
method  has  objections.  He  prefers  nursery  trees. 

Recently,  a  serious  new  contagious  bacterial  disease 
affecting  all  kinds  of  chestnut  trees  has  appeared  in  the 
East.  The  leaves  turn  yellow  and  the  tree  dies  branch 
by  branch.  Remedy,  the  same  as  for  pear  fire-blight. 

CHINQUAPIN. — A  wild,  dwarf,  bush-like  variety  of 
chestnut,  of  little  commercial  value. 

COCOANUT. — There  are  a  few  successful  groves  in 
southern  Florida. 

Fi^BERT  AND  HAZEIJSTUT. — We  call  the  American 
product  * '  hazelnuts, ' '  and  the  imported  kind ' '  filberts. ' ' 
Botanically  they  are  both  Corylus.  Commercially  the 
culture  of  hazelnuts  has  not  been  much  of  a  success  in 
this  country  in  the  East,  and  but  slightly  more  so  in 
California. 

HICKORY  NuT. — The  shellbark  hickory  is  as  yet 
mainly  known  as  a  forest  tree,  but  the  time  is  no 
doubt  coming  when  some  of  the  finer  varieties — Hale's 
Paper  Shell,  for  instance  —  will  be  commercially 
planted.  Hickories  (like  black  walnuts  and  butter- 
nuts) object  to  transplanting,  and  it  is  not  easy  to 
propagate  them  by  grafting  or  budding ;  therefore 
they  are  usually  grown  from  selected  seed. 

PECAN. — This  highly-esteemed  nut  tree  is  a  species 
of  hickory  indigenous  on  fertile,  moist  lowlands  in 


118  BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

Ohio,  Indiana,  Iowa,  etc.,  and  in  many  of  the  southern 
states.  Commercially,  the  culture  of  this  nut  is  not 
likely  to  extend  much  north  of  the  Ohio  and  the 
Potomac  rivers,  says  Prof.  Bailey.  Trees  farther  north 
are  not  apt  to  be  very  productive,  and  the  nuts  are 
smaller  in  size.  Seedling  trees  seldom  grow  true  to 
type ;  therefore  grafted  or  budded  trees  are  most 
desirable.  A  splice  crown-graft,  on  a  pecan  seedling 
stock,  is  one  of  the  best  recommended  propagation 
methods.  But  all  methods  are  difficult ;  better  buy 
trees  of  a  nurseryman.  Very  little  pruning  is  required 
after  the  tree  is  well  started.  Cultivation  is  very 
helpful  to  a  nut  orchard.  Paying  crops  should  not  be 
expected  before  ten  or  twelve  years.  Hvery  locality 
has  its  favorite  varieties,  some  of  the  best  known 
being  :  Century  ;  Van  Deman  ;  Stuart ;  San  Saba. 

WALNUT. — Our  excellent  native  variety,  the  black 
walnut,  has  previously  been  mentioned  in  this  chap- 
ter, in  connection  with  the  butternut.  The  Bnglish 
walnut  (also  called  '  *  Persian  ' '  walnut  and  ' '  Madeira ' ' 
nut)  is  not  suited  to  cold  climates,  and  commercially 
it  is  profitable,  in  this  country,  in  practically  but  one 
state  —  California.  Specimen  trees  can  be  grown, 
however,  in  Pennsylvania  and  similar  climates. 
Another  imported  species  —  the  Japan  walnut  —  is 
often  grown  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  the  East  and 
North.  It  is  hardy,  bears  its  nuts  in  odd-looking 
clusters,  but  has  little  commercial  value. 


PLATE    XVII 
FLEMISH  BEAUTY 


KIEFFER 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


CITRUS  AND  OTHER  FRUITS. 


There*  s  a  special  fruit  for  everybody's  taste  ;  take  your  choice. 

APRICOT. — This  delicious  fruit  is  like  both  peach 
and  plum.  It  can  be  grown,  under  right  conditions, 
as  far  north  as  western  New  York,  being  about  as 
hardy  as  the  peach  and  requiring  the  same  special  con- 
ditions. Borers,  rot  and  the  curculio  are  the  principal 
enemies. 

AVOCADO  OR  AUJGATOR  PEAR. — Occasionally 
grown  in  southern  Florida. 

CITRON. — This  is  a  small,  bush-like  tree  which 
bears  a  large,  thick-rinded  fruit  which  somewhat 
resembles  a  lemon  in  appearance.  Grown  to  a  mod- 
erate extent  in  Florida  and  California,  for  preserves. 

CRAB  AppiyE.  — The  best-known  varieties  are  : 
Hyslop  ;  Martha ;  Red  Siberian  ;  Transcendent ;  Whit- 
ney ;  Yellow  Siberian ;  etc.  For  insects,  fungous 
troubles,  culture,  etc.,  see  chapter  on  The  Apple. 

DATE  PAI.M. — Occasional  plantings  of  this  noble 
tree  are  to  be  found  in  Florida,  Mexico,  Arizona, 
California,  etc.  The  dry,  even  climate  of  Arizona  will 
probably  produce  this  fruit  better  than  any  other 
place  in  the  United  States. 

FIG. — Except  on  the  Pacific  coast  or  in  the  far 

South,  fig  trees  are  not  commercially  successful  in  this 

country.       But  by  bending  the  trees  down   to  the 

ground  in  the  fall  and  covering  them,  or  by  growing 

(119) 


120  BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 

them  in  tubs  which  can  be  put  in  a  cellar  during  the 
winter,  it  is  quite  possible  to  raise  figs  for  home  use 
almost  anywhere. 

GUAVA. —  An  attractive,  refreshing  fruit  of  the 
tropics.  Successfully  grown  in  southern  Florida. 

LEMON. — Grown  commercially  in  California, 
southern  Florida,  etc.  Propagation  is  usually  by 
means  of  budding  on  seedling  stocks  (orange  seed- 
lings are  often  used).  The  trees  are  generally  set 
twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  apart.  Cultivation  should 
be  given.  Cut  back  and  thin  out  the  shoots  each 
season.  The  lemon  is  more  tender,  as  regards  frost, 
than  the  orange.  Some  of  the  leading  varieties  are  : 
Belair ;  Genoa ;  Imperial ;  Sicily  ;  Villa  Franca ;  Lis- 
bon ;  Eureka ;  Messina.  The  fruit  is  picked  before  it 
colors,  and  placed  in  shallow  curing-trays  until  ready 
for  packing.  Bach  fruit  is  cut,  instead  of  being  pulled, 
from  the  tree. 

LIME. — A  valuable  member  of  the  citrus  family, 
although  not  much  cultivated  in  this  country.  The 
fruit  is  used  in  making  cooling  drinks,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  citric  acid. 

LOQUAT. — This  fruit  is  sometimes  incorrectly  called 
"Japan  plum"  or  "Medlar."  It  is  a  small,  ever- 
green tree.  Hardy  as  far  north  as  Charleston,  but 
will  not  fruit  satisfactorily  much  outside  of  the 
orange  belt. 

MANGO. — This  tropical  fruit  is  too  tender  except 
for  southern  Florida,  etc. 

MULBERRY. — Not  grown  commercially,  but  every- 
body should  have  one  or  two  trees.  Downing  is 
probably  the  best  variety,  but  it  is  not  entirely  hardy 


CITRUS   AND   OTHER   FRUITS  121 

much  north  of  Philadelphia.  New  American  is  the 
most  promising  variety  for  northern  localities. 
Russian  is  most  hardy,  but  the  fruit  is  not  so  good  as 
Downing,  etc.  Mulberries  may  be  propagated  by 
cuttings  of  the  ripe  wood. 

NECTARINE. — This  fruit  is  practically  nothing  but 
a  smooth-skin  peach ;  it  is  not  so  popular  as  the 
peach  and  is  not  much  grown  except  in  California. 

OUVE. — A  commercial  success  only  in  California. 

ORANGE. — In  California  the  orange  industry  has 
reached  enormous  proportions;  and  in  Florida  the 
business  is  rapidly  recovering  from  the  disastrous 
freezes  of  a  few  years  ago, — the  centre  of  the  orchard 
region  having  been  moved  farther  south.  Seedling 
groves  are  not  uncommon,  but  the  most  satisfactory 
method  of  propagation  is  budding  upon  sour  or  sweet 
orange  seedling  stocks.  "  Trees  should  not  be  set 
deeper  in  the  ground  than  they  were  in  the  nursery," 
says  a  prominent  grower.  Cut  back  the  head  severely 
and  trim  the  roots.  After  the  tree  is  well  started  but 
little  pruning  is  required, — except  to  cut  out  dead  or 
crossed  limbs,  and  watersprouts,  etc.  A  loose,  mel- 
low, well-drained  soil,  free  from  hard-pan  near  the 
surface,  is  desirable.  The  trees  need  plenty  of  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid,  and  not  too  much  nitrogen. 

Principal  insect  and  fungous  troubles :  The  rust- 
mite,  red  spider,  mealy  bug,  leaf  roller,  caterpillars, 
aphis,  and  the  ' '  purple, "  "  long, "  "  red, "  "  circular, ' ' 
"white,"  "ribbed,"  "broad,"  "black  "and  San  Jose 
scales,  are  all  enemies  of  the  orange  grove,  and  are 
fought  with  the  usual  remedies — whale-oil  soap,  kero- 
sene emulsion,  arsenate  of  lead,  lime-sulphur-salt,  etc. 


122  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

"Foot-rot,""  die-back,"  limb-blight,  scab,  etc.,  all 
require  special  treatment,  if  present. 

Varieties :  Some  of  the  most  popular  varieties  in 
Florida  are :  Indian  River ;  Centennial ;  Tardiff ; 
Homosassa ;  Jaffa  ;  Majorca ;  Parson  Brown  ;  Satsuma ; 
Dancy ;  King  (the  last  three  are  Tangerine  or  "kid- 
glove  ' '  varieties) .  In  California  the  Washington  Navel 
orange  is,  of  course,  the  most  popular;  Paper-rind 
(St.  Michael)  ;  Jaffa ;  Mediterranean  Sweet ;  Malta 
Blood ;  etc. ;  and  some  of  the  Tangerines,  are  also 
planted.  Oranges  should  be  mature  when  gathered. 

In  the  Gulf-coast  counties  of  Texas,  Mississippi, 
Louisiana  and  Alabama,  Satsuma  oranges  budded  on 
Citrus  trifoliata  stock  have  recently  been  grown  com- 
mercially. These  trees  are  more  hardy  than  other 
kinds  of  oranges,  but  whether  or  not  they  will  stand  a 
severe  freeze  remains  to  be  seen. 

PAWPAW. — This  tree  is  a  native  of  our  central- 
states  valleys,  and  is  found  along  the  banks  of  rivers. 
Commercially  it  is  of  little  importance. 

PERSIMMON. — The  American  persimmon,  or,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called,  "date  plum,"  grows  wild  in 
many  parts  of  the  United  States.  Few  attempts  have 
been  made,  as  yet,  to  improve  it  or  to  grow  it  on  a 
commercial  scale.  It  is  a  difficult  tree  to  transplant. 

A  foreign  variety  called  Japanese  persimmon,  or 
Kaki,  bearing  larger  and  finer  fruits,  is  grown  in  the 
far  South  for  market.  This  is  not  hardy  in  the  North. 

POMELO. — Also  called  "grape  fruit"  and  "shad- 
dock." A  variety  of  citrus  tree  which  is  planted, 
cultivated,  and  cared  for  about  the  same  as  the  orange. 


PLATE    XVIII 
SMOCK   FREE  (TWO  SPECIMENS.      NOT  LARGE,  BECAUSE  NOT  THINNED) 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


PICKING  FRUIT. 


Two  good  fruit  rules  :  Never  pick  fruits  when  they  are  wet, 
and  handle  them  like  eggs. — Tim. 

' '  How  am  I  to  know  the  right  season  to  pick  my 
apples  or  pears?"  is  a  question  often  asked.  The 
simplest  method  of  determining  the  matter  is  to  take 
hold  of  a  pear  or  an  apple  on  the  tree  and 
gently  bend  it  upward.  If  ripe  enough  to 
pick,  the  stem  will  part  from  the  branch 
without  breaking.  But,  in  addition  to  this 
method,  the  experienced  grower  is  guided 
largely  b^  the  ' '  time  of  ripening ' '  of  each 
variety.  Bach  kind  of  fruit  has  its  own 
season  for  reaching  maturity  ;  catalogs,  fruit 
lists  and  observation  easily  make  that  season 
known  to  any  one  who  desires  the  informa-  HANDY 
tion.  The  appearance  of  the  fruit,  and  whether  LAr>DER 
or  not  its  seeds  look  black  and  mature,  are  further 
guides.  It  is  important  to  do  the  picking  only  during 
cool,  clear  weather. 

All  orchardists  should  pick  (not  pull  or  shake) 
their  fruit  from  the  trees  if  they  would  get  the  best 
prices.  But,  many  trees  are  being  slowly  ruined  by 
careless  picking  —  the  kind  that  pulls  off  the  little 
spur  that  has  developed  the  fruit,  which  if  left  will 
develop  fruits  in  after  years.  There  is  a  slaughter  of 
these  spurs  in  most  orchards.  Grasp  the  apple  or 

(123) 


124 


BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 


pear  firmly,  as  indicated  in  the  cut,  and  give  an 
upward  bend  of  the  wrist ;  then  the 
fruit  comes  off  with  only  the  stem  at- 
tached. No  time  will  be  lost,  either,  in 
thus  doing  the  picking  right,  and  the 
stems  will  be  left  on  the  fruit  —  as  they 
should  be. 

Apples  should  be  ripe,  but  hard,  when  picked. 
In  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia  the  main-crop  winter 
varieties  are  usually  gathered  in  early  October. 


THE   FRUIT   HARVEST 

Pears,  on  the  contrary,  are  still  green  when  ready 
to  pick.  They  are  mature  but  not  ripened, — the 
coloring  process  should  come  after  they  have  been 
taken  from  the  tree  ;  this  insures  better  eating, 
keeping  and  shipping  qualities. 

CHERRIKS. — The  principal  points  of  importance 
are,  care  in  picking  the  fruits  with  the  stems  on,  and 


PICKING  FRUIT  125 

in  not  pulling  the  spur  off  to  which  the  stem  is 
attached,  says  T.  A.  Farrand,  in  a  special  report  to 
the  American  Pomological  So- 
ciety. Throw  all  inferior, 
bruised  or  decayed  fruits  on 
the  ground  rather  than  in  the 
basket,  and  thus  avoid  a  mussy 
lot  of  fruit  for  the  packers  to 
cull  over.  Have  good  ladders 
and  pick  all  the  fruit  you  can 
from  thence,  rather  than  climb 
around  in  the  tree  and  break 
the  limbs  and  fruit  spurs.  FOR  HIGH  TREES 
Two  pickings,  with  an  interval  between,  are 
usually  all  that  are  necessary  to  clean  up  the  tree. 
One  of  the  most  successful  Michigan  growers,  Mr. 
Benton  Gebhart,  harvests  all  his  cherries,  both  sweet 
and  sour,  by  spreading  sheets  under  the  trees ;  the 
pickers  then  clip  the  fruit  off  with  scissors,  leaving 
about  a  half-inch  stem  with  the  fruit,  allowing  it  to 
drop  on  the  sheets.  Mr.  Gebhart  is  far  better  satis- 
fied with  this  method  than  with  the  usual  way,  as 
there  are  no  fruit  spurs  pulled  off  as  in  picking.  The 
pickers  are  well  satisfied  to  do  the  work  in  this  way. 
The  fruit  is  sorted  from  the  sheets  into  the  market 
packages,  and  Mr.  Gebhart  claims  that  he  gets  on  an 
average  seventy-five  cents  more  for  a  sixteen-quart 
crate  of  cherries  with  clipped  stems  than  for  undipped. 
It  takes  from  two,  to  two  and  a  half,  quarts  more  of 
clipped  stem  fruit  to  fill  a  sixteen-quart  crate,  than 
where  the  whole  stem  is  left  on.  Cherries  (particularly 
the  sweet  varieties,  which  are  very  subject  to  rot) 


126  BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 

are  quickly  perishable  and  must  be  picked  the 
instant  they  are  ready.  Delay  means  loss  by  birds 
and  rot. 

PEACHES. — To  determine  "just  when  a  peach  is 
ready, "  requires  a  little  observation  and  experience. 
For  shipping  purposes  the  fruit  should  be  ripe,  but 
hard,  —  the  degree  of  hardness 
depending  upon  the  distance  the 
fruit  must  travel.  Many  expert 
peach  growers  ' '  go  over ' '  each  tree 
'  at  least  twice  ;  and,  often,  three  or 
PICKING  BENCH  four  times,  at  intervals.  Why? 
Because  peaches  seldom  ripen  evenly  on  a  tree,  and,  by 
the  time  all  were  ready  to  pick,  some  would  be  too  soft 
for  shipment.  Peaches,  like  cherries  and  plums,  are 
quickly  perishable  and  therefore  must  be  handled 
promptly  and  at  just  the  right  minute.  Bach  variety 
has  its  own  ripening  time,  and  by  dividing  an  orchard 
into,  say,  six  kinds  which  ripen  at  intervals  of  about 
a  week  apart,  the  orchardist  is  enabled  easily  to  handle 
one  variety  before  the  next  is  ripe.  This 
is  a  great  point  in  large  orchards  where 
competent  help  is  hard  to  get,  —  spreads 
the  picking  and  packing  over  six  weeks, 
instead  of  crowding  it  into  only  one  or 
two. 

PiyUMS.  —  If  possible,  pick  plums,  for 
market,  ' '  with  the  stems  on. ' '  The  fruit 
should  be  ripe,  well  colored,  but  not  soft.  If  rot 
threatens  (as  it  often  does),  the  sooner  you  can  pick 
the  crop,  the  better.  Don't  delay  a  moment.  Watch 
for  the  right  time,  and  then  hurry  matters. 


PICKING  FRUIT 


127 


QUINCES. — A  quince  should  be  ripe  and  well 
colored  before  it  is  picked.  Green  specimens  are  not 
very  attractive  to  the  average  buyer.  If  necessary, 
pick  the  trees  several  times,  at  intervals,  so  as  to 
secure  all  the  fruits  in  a  proper  condition. 


FRUIT  SPURS. 
Better  bruise  your  shins  than  your  fruit. 

If  possible,  pick  fruit  during  the  cool  of  the  day ;  and  avoid 
picking  during  extra  hot,  murky  days. 

For  home  use,  let  peaches  and  plums  thoroughly  mellow 
and  ripen  on  the  trees.  But  this  won't  do  for  fruit  which  is  to 
be  shipped. 

Fruit  should  be  set  in  the  shade 
or  taken  to  the  packing  house  as  soon 
as  picked.  Don't  let  it  sun-cook.  Get 
it  cool  and  keep  it  cool. 

Figs.  I  and  II  show  two  styles  of 
long-handled  fruit  pickers  which  are 
sometimes  used  for  high-up  fruit. 
Fig.  II  has  a  canvas  chute  arrange- 
ment for  letting  the  fruit  down  into 
the  picker's  hand. 

With  either  apples  or  pears,  one     ^.  . 
picking  is  usually  sufficient  to  secure 
_    -~       all    the    fruit    in    proper    condition. 
Sometimes,  however,  it  pays  to  pick 

the  larger,  more  mature  specimens  first,  and  then  clean  up  the 
tree  a  few  days  later. 

I,ook  to  the  safety  of  the  fruit  ladders.  A  rotten  spot  may 
mean  a  broken  leg  or  arm.  Frequent  coats  of  paint  will  preserve 
the  soundness  of  the  wood.  In  this  chapter  will  be  found  several 
pictures  of  different  styles  of  picking  ladders. 

Do  not  handle  fruit  more  than  is  necessary.  The  natural 
bloom  should  be  left  on.  And  endeavor  to  pick  apples,  pears, 
etc.,  before  winds  blow  many  of  them  off.  Pick  the  outside  trees 
first,  as  the  inside  trees  in  an  orchard  are  more  protected  from 
the  wind's  force. 

Do  not  squeeze  peaches  on  a  tree,  to  see  whether  or  not  they 
are  sufficiently  soft  to  pick.  Decay  swiftly  follows  such  treat- 
ment. Expert  pickers  soon  learn  the  knack  of  "feeling"  of  a 


128 


BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 


peach  without  really  squeezing-  it.    The  eye,  and  this  delicate 
sense  of  touch,  become  trained  to  work  together. 

A  basket  hung  from  the  rounds  of 
a  ladder  is  inconvenient  to  reach.  Fit 
an  iron  in  the  shape  shown  in  the  cut, 
and  you  can  then  have  your  basket  at 
the  side  of  the  ladder,  in  the  handiest 
of  all  positions.  A  few  wooden  pegs 
up  and  down  the  ladder  will  keep  the 
iron  from  slipping-.  A  blacksmith  can 
make  it  in  a  few  minutes.  And  here's 
the  picture  of  a  double-basket  holder 
for  hanging  on  to  a  tree  limb. 

Wilmer  Atkinson  says :  "  We  pick  all  sound  apples  from  the 
trees  into  tin  pails,  gently  pour  into  slatted  bushel-crates,  and 
take  them  to  our  cool  '  apple  mow '  (once  a  hay  mow) .  This 
storage  place  has  been  double  walled  and  lined,  and  keeps  our 
winter  apples  until  May.  We  do  the  sorting  in  the  winter." 
(See  Chapter  XX  for  further  particulars  about  this  simple 
method  of  cold-air  storage.— J.  B.) 

A  well-known  Pennsylvania  apple  grower  has  issued  to  his 
men  the  following- printed  rules  for  picking :  1.  Pick  lower  limbs 
first.  2.  See  that  the  ladder  is  pushed  into  the  tree  gently  so  as 
not  to  knock  off  or  bruise  the  fruit.  3.  Hang  the  kettle  or  basket 
so  as  to  be  able  to  pick  with  both  hands.  4.  I,ay  the  apples  in  ; 
do  not  drop  or  throw  them.  5.  Pick  no  specked  apples.  6.  Pick 
no  small,  green  ones.  7.  Do  not  take  much  time  in  picking  a  few 
little  apples  out  of  reach, — let  them  go.  8.  In  emptying,  pour 
gently,  as  you  would  eggs.  9.  Do  not  set  one  basket  or  crate  on 
another  so  that  the  apples  below  will  be  bruised.  10.  lyift  and  set 
down  gently  all  filled  crates.  11.  Use  spring  wagon  in  hauling, 
avoid  rough  ground,  and  go  slow  except  on  smooth  road.  These 
rules  are  necessary  for  the  proper  harvesting  of  the  crop. 

"  When  swallows  on  the  barn  roofs  Perch,  to  chatter  of  their  flight, 
When  hints  of  frost  are  in  the  air,  and  crickets  chirp  at  night  ; 
Then  come  the  Pleasant  days  we  love  in  Autumn's  mellow  Prime, 
The  j oiliest  days  of  all  the  year — the  apple-picking  time. 
For  the  laden  boughs  are  bending  low  o^er  all  the  orchard  ways, 
The  aPPles^  cheeks  are  burning  red,  and  father  smiles ,  and  says 
Some  sparkling  morn  :  'I  think  today  we  might  as  well  begin  ; — 
Be  smart  now,  boys  /  you'll  need  a  week  to  get  those  apples  in.' " 


130 


BIGGIE   ORCHARD    BOOK 


length  of  stave,  and  bulge  not  less  than  sixty-four 
inches,  outside  measurement. 

The  barrel  should  be  well  made,  clean,  neat  and 
attractive.  The  statement  is  sometimes  made  that  the 
"package  sells  the  fruit."  While  this  may  not  be 
strictly  true,  still  the  package,  making  as  it  does 
the  first  impression,  favorable  to  the  product  or 
unfavorable,  has  much  to  do  with  disposing  of  its 
contents.  Under  no  conditions  should  the  barrel  be 
undersized ;  it  should  give  full  measure  as  determined 
by  law  or  the  custom  in  the  region  from  which  the 
fruit  comes. 

BOXES  FOR  APPLES. — During  recent  years  the 
bushel  apple  box  has  been  brought  into  prominent 
notice.  Probably  the  box  has  come  to  stay  and  will 
continue  to  grow  in  popular  favor.  The  strong  point 
in  favor  of  the  box  is  that  it  suits  the  needs  of  the 
small  housekeeper.  Many  hesitate  to  buy  a  barrel 
of  apples  who  would  be  glad 
to  get  the  same  material  in  a 
smaller  package.  But  the  box 
should  not  be  used  for  any- 
thing but  first-class  fruit.  The 
size  of  the  box  is  not  yet  uni- 
form. The  one  recommended 
for  national  legislation  is  a  box 
containing  2342  cu.  in.,  or 
BOXED  APPLES  about  the  capacity  of  the  pres- 

ent Colorado  box.  The  legal  box  in  Canada,  and  the 
"special"  of  the  far  West,  is  10  x  11  x  20,  while  the 
"  standard  "  box  of  the  latter  section  is  IGJxllJxlS 
— all  inside  measurements. 


GRADING   AND    PACKING  131 

PACKING  HOUSE. — A  portion  of  the  barn  may 
be  arranged  for  packing  fruit,  or  a  special  shed  or 
packing  house  may  be  erected.  Some  growers  do 
their  packing  on  tables  placed  in  the  shade  in  the 
orchard.  Padded  tables  with  sloping  tops  and  rim 
sides,  are  very  helpful  aids  to  the  sorting  or  grading 
operation.  Bndeavor  to  have  the  packing  house  or 
place  as  cool  as  possible. 

GRADING  APPI^S.  —Three  grades  are  sufficient,  or 
rather,  two  grades  and  the  cull-heap.  I  believe  it  best 
to  follow  the  standard  of  size  as  determined  by  the 
National  Apple -Shippers'  Association,  says  Mr.  H. 
H.  Hume,  and  their  remarks  on  quality  are  quite  in 
place  :  The  standard  of  size  for  No.  1  apples  of  large 
varieties,  such  as  York  Imperial,  Stayman,  Rome 
Beauty  and  Ben  Davis,  is  set  at  not  less  than  two  and 
one-half  inches  in  diameter.  The  standard  of  size  for 
No.  1  apples  of  the  smaller  varieties,  such  as  Winesap, 
Jonathan  and  Bonum,  is  not  less  than  two  and  one- 
fourth  inches.  All  No.  1  apples  should  be  practically 
free  from  worm-holes,  bruises,  breaks  in  the  skin,  and 
be  of  good  color,  well-grown  and  hand-picked. 

No.  2  apples  are  those  which  are  not  less  than  two 
and  one-fourth  inches  in  diameter.  The  fruit  must  be 
free  from  bruises  and  breaks  in  the  skin.  The  size  of 
No.  2  apples  of  the  smaller  sort  has  not  been  fixed, 
but  two-inch  diameter  apples  might  be  included. 

The  stems  should  be  in  all  first-class  apples,  or  in 
at  least  eighty-five  or  ninety  per  cent,  of  them,  and 
the  specimens  in  a  lot  of  this  kind  should  be  uniform 
in  size,  color  and  appearance.  The  fruit  may  be 
graded  as  it  is  packed.  Two  barrels  should  be  set 


132  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

up  —  one  for  No.  1's,  the  other  for  No.  2's  —  and  as  the 
fruit  is  picked  over,  each  class  finds  its  way  into  its 
respective  barrel.  Whether  this  work  should  be  done 
soon  after  picking,  or  later  during  the  winter,  depends 
largely  upon  the  grower's  own  methods.  Wilmer 
Atkinson  prefers  the  latter  way  (see  preceding 
chapter)  .  One  thing  is  certain  :  //  pays  to  grade 
fruit.  Most  of  this  grading  is  done  by  '  *  hand  and 
eye  '  '  ;  machine  graders  are  sometimes  used. 

PACKING  APPI^S.  —  Two  layers  of  fruit  should  be 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  barrel,  with  stems  down  and 
as  close  together  as  possible.  These  will  form  the 
facing,  for  this  end  will  be 
the  top  when  opened.  Fill 
in  with  the  same  grade,  often 
shake,  and  when  near  the 
top  put  in  two  more  layers 
with  stems  up,  letting  the 

FANCY  APPLE-PACKING 


layer 

above  the  chine  of  barrel.  Now  put  on  lid  and 
slowly  press  into  place,  shaking  the  barrel  in  the 
meanwhile. 

Some  packers  place  a  round,  corrugated  paper 
cushion  beneath  and  on  top  of  the  fruit  in  each  barrel  ; 
some  use  no  cushion  of  any  kind  ;  others  use  ordinary 
paper  ;  a  few  decorate  the  top  with  an  edging  of  white 
lace-paper,  in  addition  to  the  corrugated  cushion. 
For  filling  the  barrels,  a  small  basket,  one  that  will 
go  down  into  the  barrel,  and  provided  with  a  swing 
handle,  will  be  found  very  convenient.  This  basket 
is  filled  with  fruit,  let  down  into  the  barrel  and  turned 
over,  allowing  the  fruit  to  run  out. 


GRADING    AND    PACKING  133 

A  barrel  header,  such  as  the  stores  sell,  is  a  handy 
implement  to  own.  But  if  there  are  only  a  few  apples 
to  be  barreled,  it  may  not 
pay  to  buy  a  press.  One  can 
be  rigged  very  quickly  by 
using  a  plank  or  scantling 
with  one  end  under  a  stud 
reaching  to  the  shed  plate 
and  temporarily  nailed  in 


place.        The    barrel    to    be  HOME-MADE  BARREL  PRESS 
headed  is  placed  as  shown.     Be  careful  not  to  press 
the  apples  too  hard. 

Apples  in  boxes :  Bach  apple  should  be  put  in 
place  by  hand — in  rows  and  tiers  (like  oranges) ,  every 
apple  perfect.  The  number  and  arrangement  of  rows 
depends  upon  what  size  apple  is  being  packed  ;  each 
size  will  require  a  different  method  of  ' '  placing  to  fit. ' ' 
Sometimes  the  rows  will  need  to  be  diagonal  or  irreg- 
ular ;  a  little  experimenting,  practise  and  "knack" 
will  soon  determine  the  best  way  to  make  a  size  fit  a 
box  and  ' '  come  out  right ' '  on  top.  Every  apple  in  a 
box  should  be  uniform  in  size.  Some  packers  line 
the  boxes  with  white  paper ;  and  some  wrap  each 
apple  in  paper  made  for  the  purpose. 

Stenciling  apple  packages  :  As  soon  as  the  package 
is  closed  up  and  securely  nailed,  it  should  be  properly 
marked.  The  box  should  be  marked  on  both  ends, 
while  the  barrel  should  be  marked  on  the  faced  end 
intended  for  the  top.  Both  should  bear  the  name  of  the 
variety ;  the  grade  of  apple,  whether  No.  1  or  No.  .2  ; 
the  name  of  the  grower  and  the  place  where 
grown. 


134  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

Handle  fruit  like  eggs — with  care.  Don't  mix 
different  varieties,  shapes  and  colors  in  one  package. 
Don't  mix  windfalls  with  hand-picked  fruit. 

CHERRIES. — Baskets  not  larger  than  eight  or  ten 
pounds  should  be  used  in  picking.  The  packing 
house  should  have  tables  or  frames  with  canvas  bot- 
toms, on  which  carefully  to  lay  the  cherries  for  sorting 
into  packages.  The  fruit  in  the  package  should  be 
uniform  throughout  and  tastefully  faced  to  attract  the 
attention  of  the  fastidious,  who  will  pay  the  highest 
market  price.  In  California,  sweet  cherries  are  usually 
packed  in  shallow,  small,  wooden  boxes  holding  about 
ten  pounds,  and  the  fruit  is  carefully  sorted  and  faced 
in  regular  rows  —  stem  end  down  and  out  of  sight. 
The  effect  is  very  pretty,  but  such  packing  requires 
labor  and  time ;  it  undoubtedly  pays,  however.  In 
the  Bast,  sweet  cherries  are  commonly  packed  in 
ordinary  quart  berry  boxes,  sixteen  (or  more)  boxes 
to  the  crate.  If  the  top  of  each  box  is  properly  faced, 
the  effect  is  good ;  but  not  so  good  as  the  California 
package. 

Sour  cherries  are  usually  packed  either  in  eight- 
pound  grape  baskets,  or  in  the  quart  boxes  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  paragraph.  The  top  layer  of  fruit 
should  be  placed,  stems  down,  in  regular  rows. 
Girls  or  women  can  do  this  work  nicely.  The  extra 
expense  of  thus  facing  a  basket  of  cherries  amounts 
to  about  four  cents.  Does  it  pay  ?  As  a  rule,  yes.  A 
Michigan  friend  of  mine  does  even  more  :  He  packs 
his  cherries  in  quart  boxes  in  sixteen-quart  crates,  and 
along  the  top  edges  of  crate,  folded  down  over  the 
fruit,  he  places  a  narrow  edging  of  white  lace-paper, 


GRADING   AND   PACKING  135 

— something  similar  to  the  edging  often  seen  on 
candy  boxes.  The  edging  he  uses  is  about  two  inches 
wide  and  costs  " less  than  a  cent  a  crate."  Then,  with 
a  small  cluster  of  fresh  cherry  leaves  placed  in  the 
centre  of  fruit  at  each  crate  end,  he  considers  that  the 
job  is  complete.  His  fruit  certainly  does  look  remark- 
ably nice,  and  the  prices  received  for  it  are  extra 
good.  His  name  and  guarantee  go  on  every  crate. 
PEACHES. — Different  peach-growing  districts  have 
different  styles  of  packages.  In  Michigan,  for  instance, 
the  favorite  package  for 
peaches  is  the  sixth-bushel 
Climax  basket  with  extension 
slat  cover ;  in  New  Jersey, 
high,  round,  flaring-top  bas- 
kets are  in  favor,  holding 
about  half  a  bushel ;  in 

~  .  t  .        ,         t       ,  CLIMAX  PEACH-BASKET 

Georgia,  the  six-basket  crate 

is  the  thing,   each  basket 
holding  about  four  quarts. 
Then  there  are  four-basket 
?  crates,     open  -  sided     peck 
Climax  baskets   (for  fancy 
fruit),  fifth-bushel  Climax 
baskets,  round  bushel  bas- 
kets with  slat  covers,  etc., 
SIX-BASKET  PEACH  CRATE      etej       "what    package    to 

use  ' '   is   largely  a  matter  of  locality  and  choice. 

Peaches  are  usually  graded  into  three  or  four  sizes, 
and  each  size  is  packed  by  itself  and  labeled  accord- 
ingly. Machine  graders  do  excellent  work,  and  are 
often  used  by  large  growers.  In  the  Michigan  and 


136  BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

Georgia  baskets,  the  peaches  are  fitted  into  regular 
rows  and  tiers,  all  arranged  "just  so."  The  largest 
or  first-grade  peaches  are  often  labeled  * '  Fancy  ' '  or 
'  *  Selects. ' '  Red  tarletan  is  sometimes  fitted  over  each 

basket,  giving  the 
fruit  a  pink,  pretty, 
but  rather  decep- 
tive look. 

PEARS.  — This 
fruit  is  usually 
packed  and  shipped 
while  still  in  a 
green  state.  Bushel 
boxes,  barrels, 
round  bushel  or 
A  MACHINE  PEACH-GRADER  half-bushelbaskets, 
kegs,  etc.,  are  favored  by  different  growers  and  local- 
ities. The  ripening  is  nearly  always  done  by  the 
dealer.  Grading  must  be  done  by  hand  and  eye ;  I 
have  not  yet  heard  of  a  successful  machine  grader 
for  pears.  Fancy  fruits  should  each  be  wrapped  in 
paper,  —  California  style. 

PI,UMS. — All  sorts  of  packages  are  used  for  this 
fruit ;  it  does  not  seem  to  have  an  individual  package 
especially  adapted  to  its  needs.  Peach  baskets,  grape 
baskets,  strawberry  boxes  in  crates,  etc.,  etc.,  are  all 
used.  Bach  grower  has  his  own  preference ;  and,  of 
course,  the  style  of  package  chosen  should  depend 
largely  upon  the  distance  it  must  be  shipped. 

QUINCES.  —  Barrels,  half-barrels,  bushel  baskets, 
etc.,  are  all  suitable  for  quinces.  Bach  fruit  should  be 
well  colored,  unbruised  and  perfect.  Make  two  grades 
or  sizes.  Use  the  culls  at  home. 


COE'S    GOLDEN    DROP 


PLATE    XX 


LOMBARD 


GERMAN  PRUNE  GREEN  GAGE 


KELSEY 


CHAPTER  XX. 


COLD  STORAGE  AND  MARKETING. 


* 


After  producing  fine  fruit,  learn  how  to  sell  it ;  the  proof  of 
the  selling  is  in  the  size  of  the  cheque.—  Farmer  Vincent. 

It  is  not  advisable,  in  my  opinion,  for  the  average 
fruit-grower  to  use  ice  for  cold  storage  purposes  for 
winter  apples,  etc., — at 
least  in  the  latitude  of 
Philadelphia  and  north- 
ward. In  Chapter  XVIII 
I  referred  to  Wilmer  Atkin- 
>n's  cold  storage  method, 
and  I  want  to  say  more 
about  it,  now.  Here  is  a 
copy  of  a  letter  from  him  in  which  he  gives  particu- 
lars about  the  method: 

' '  On  Monday  we  begin  to  pick  our  crop  of  Mayfield 
apples  and  expect  to  have  between  4,000  and  5,000 
bushels.  The  orchard  has  just  come  into  bearing,  this 
being  really  the  first  crop.  Having  a  very  large  barn, 
much  of  the  space  contained  therein  is  available  for 
storing  other  things  than  hay,  wheat,  etc. ;  so  I  have 
converted  a  mow,  25  x  40  feet,  into  two  storage  rooms, 
one  above  the  other.  It  is  a  stone  barn  with  thick 
walls,  sufficient,  with  a  little  lining  inside  of  thick 
paper  (on  two  sides) ,  to  keep  out  frost.  I  have  also 
doubled  the  wooden  walls  on  the  other  two  sides,  with 
felt  between,  and  now  have  what  I  deem  to  be  an 
admirable  place  to  keep  winter  apples, — up  to  the  first 
(137) 


138  BIGGIE    ORCHARD    BOOK 

of  April.  The  two  rooms  will  hold,  I  think,  my  entire 
crop.  Three  double  doors  are  made  in  each  room  for 
the  ingress  of  air  on  cold  nights,  my  purpose  being  to 
use  cold  night  air  instead  of  ice  for  keeping  down  the 
temperature.  Whenever  the  temperature  outside  is 
colder  than  it  is  inside,  the  doors  will  be  opened  and 
the  air  let  in  ;  the  doors  will  be  all  closed  when  it  is 
warmer  outside.  We  expect,  before  October  is  out,  to 
get  the  temperature  down  below  fifty  degrees  and  keep 
it  there  through  November  ;  and  by  December  we  can 
easily  get  it  down  to  thirty-five.  Were  I  going  to 
build  a  cold  storage  house  for  winter  apples  I  should 
do  it  upon  this  principle  and  not  bother  with  ice  at 
all.  But  the  walls  must  be  tight,  double,  paper  lined, 
and  with  an  air  space  between.  Heat  must  be  kept 
out,  cold  must  be  kept  in.  Open  the  doors  and  let  in 
cool  night  air ;  close  them  during  warm  days.  During 
the  winter  if  the  thermometer  sinks  to  zero  or  lower, 
and  stays  down  for  three  or  four  days,  as  it  sometimes 
does,  it  may  be  necessary  to  leave  a  lighted  lantern  or 
small  oil  stove  in  the  storage  room  during  the  cold 
snap,  so  that  the  fruit  will  not  be  frozen.  Apples 
thus  stored  keep  all  their  good  flavor, — which  is  more 
than  I  can  say  for  fruit  stored  in  ice  or  ammonia- 
cooled  buildings." 

I  happen  to  know  that  Mr.  Atkinson  has  subse- 
quently proved  the  truth  and  success  of  his  plan,  and 
I  can  heartily  recommend  the  idea  to  other  fruit- 
growers. This  method  will  keep  good  winter  apples 
as  late  as  April  1st.  What  more  is  necessary  ?  I  can 
see  no  advantage  in  later  keeping  of  apples.  After 
April,  apples  come  into  competition  with  strawberries, 
etc.,  and  are  not  usually  very  much  wanted;  besides, 


COI,D    STORAGE   AND   MARKETING  139 

the  average  grower  hasn't  time,  after  April,  to  attend 
to  the  proper  marketing  of  apples — he  is  too  busy 
with  the  spring  work.  And,  too,  many  growers  can 
not  afford  to  pay  the  charges  demanded  by  some  of 
the  big  refrigerating  plants. 

Pears  will  not  keep  nearly  so  long  as  apples,  and 
are  usually  all  marketed,  green,  early  in  the  season. 
SEIZING  FRUIT.— J.  H.  Hale  says:  "Get  a  good 
dealer  and  tell  him  you  have  a  good  thing.  Have  your 
commission  man  go  and  see  your 
place.  The  business  side  of  fruit- 
growing means  belief  in  yourself 
and  then  making  those  with  whom 
you  trade  believe  in  you. ' ' 

H.  H.  Hume  says  :— "  The  best 
plan  is  to  get  in  touch  with  fruit 
dealers  or  commission  men  in  good  markets  and  get 
them  to  handle  the  fruit.  Either  ship  to  them  on  con- 
signment or  sell  to  them  outright.  Pick  good,  reliable 
men  ;  send  them  good  material,  treat  them  squarely, 
and  you  will  receive  like  treatment  in  return. ' ' 

Another  good  way  to  sell  fruit  is  to  secure  a  num- 
ber of  personal,  retail  customers  to  whom  you  can  sell 
direct.  Or  make  arrangements  with  stores. 

In  some  localities  and  with  some  kinds  of  fruit,  it 
is  possible  to  sell  the  crop,  on  the  trees,  for  a  lump 
sum  per  acre  or  for  the  entire  orchard.  The  buyer 
does  the  rest. 

Oftentimes  buyers  will  buy  an  entire  orchard's 
product,  and  agree  to  pay  so  much  per  barrel  for  firsts 
and  so  much  for  seconds  ;  or  they  may  offer  so  much 
per  barrel  "as  the  fruit  runs."  Sometimes  the 
arrangement  is  that  the  grower  is  to  do  all  the  picking, 


140  BIGGIE   ORCHARD   BOOK 

grading  and  packing,  and  deliver  the  fruit  at  the 
nearest  railway  station  or  steamship  wharf. 

Wilmer  Atkinson's  method  is  to  store  the  fruit 
until  winter  or  later,  and  then  gradually  sort,  pack 
and  market  it  during  the  leisure  months. 

"Central  Packing  Houses,"  "  Fruit  -Growers* 
Exchanges, "  "  Co-operative  Marketing  Associations, " 
etc. ,  have  been  more  or  less  successfully  operated  in 
California,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Cobden,  111., 
Springfield,  Mo.,  Maryland,  Georgia,  etc.  These 
concerns  are  usually  incorporated,  and  the  surround- 
ing fruit-growers  own  stock  and  control  the  manage- 
ment. Such  mutual  associations,  when  rightly  officered 
and  conducted,  are  often  a  great  blessing  to  a  fruit- 
growing community.  Instead  of,  say,  one  hundred 
different  brands  in  one  locality  —  all  different  and  all 
competing  against  each  other  in  open  market  —  there 
is  (where  a  central  packing  and  selling  concern  exists) 
just  one  brand.  And  this  one  brand,  being  all  graded 
and  packed  uniformly  and  in  very  large  lots,  can  be 
sold  to  better  advantage  than  a  diversified  product. 

Well,  Harriet  hints  that  it  is  time  for  me  to  stop, — 
that  this  book  is  already  too  long.  So,  while  she 
looks  over  my  shoulder  and  nods  her  head  encourag- 
ingly, I  believe  that  I  had  better  say  :  '  *  Good-night. ' ' 


INDEX 


PAGE 

A 

Age  at  which  trees  bear,  .  .  18 
Alfalfa  in  orchards,  ....  77 

Almond, -115 

Aphis,      83,  92,  96,  108 

Aphis,  woolly, 35,    85 

Apple,  The.  Culture  Pests ; 
Pruning;  Spraying;  Va- 
rieties ;  etc.,    ....  81  to    90 
Apples,   cold   storage   and 
marketing,   ....  137  to  140 

Apples,  crab, 119 

Apples,  grading,  .  131,  132,  133 
Apples,  packing,  .  .  129  to  133 
Apples,  picking, 

123,  124,  127,  128 

Apricot 119 

Arsenate  of  lead, ....  62,     63 

Ashes,  hard-wood,.  .    .  55,     78 

Avocado  or  Alligator  pear,  119 

B 

Bark-burst, 91,  110 

Bark  grafting,  .....  23,  24 
Bark  injury,  preventing, 

77,  78,  79,  80,    91 
' '  Barked  ' '  trees ,  saving,  24,    58 

Barrel  press, 133 

Barrels,  apple,  129,  130,  132,  133 
Baskets,  packing,  134,  135,  136 
Baskets,  picking;  .  .  .  128,  134 

Beech  nut, 115 

Beetle. 

(See  May  Beetle,  etc.) 

Bird  injury, 94 

Bitter  rot, 85 

Black  knot, 93,  109 

Black  spot, 86 

Black  walnut, 115 

Blight,  fire  or  pear,  .  .  86,  105 
Blight,  leaf,  .  .  93,  104,  105,  110 

B  ight,  twig, 86,    97 

Blister  mite 103 

Blossom  facts, 

16,  17,  44,  58,  65,  77,  78,  79,  96 
Blue  vitriol.  (See  Copper  Sulphate.) 

Bolts,  use  of , 77 

Bone  fertilizers, 56 

Bordeaux  mixture,  61,62,65,  66 
Borers, 

77,  79,  80,  83,  92,  96,  103,  108 
Boxes,  fruit,    .  130,  133,  134,  136 

Bridge  grafting, 24 

Brown  rot, 93,  97,  110 


PAGE 

Budding,  .  .  19,  25,  26,  27,  28 
Buds.  (See  Blossom  Facts.) 

Bud  worm, 83 

Buffalo  tree-hopper,  ....    83 

Butternut, 115 

Buying  trees, 14,    16 

C 

Canker,        86,    87 

Canker  worm, 84 

Caterpillars,  tent, 85 

Cherry ,The.  Culture; Pests; 
Pruning;  Spraying;  Va- 
rieties; etc.,  •   •  91  to    94 
Cherries,  grading,  ...         134 
Cherries,  packing,     .    .  134,  135 
Cherries,  picking,  124,  125,  126 

Chestnut, 115,  116,  117 

Chinquapin, 117 

Citron,         119 

Citrus  fruits,  .  .  .  .  119  to  122 
Cleft  grafting,  .  .  .21,22.  23 
Climatic  conditions,  •  •  .12 
Clover  in  orchards,  .  .  .76,  77 

Cocoanut, 117 

Cocoons,  destroy, 77 

Codling  moth,  ...  83,  84,  103 
Cold  storage,  .  137,  138,  139,  140 

Collar  rot, 86,    87 

Commission  men, 139 

Co-operative  associations,  .  140 
Copper  sulphate,  .  .61,62,  66 
Cover  crops,  ....  75,  76,  77 
Cowpeas  in  orchards,  ...  76 

Crab  apple, 119 

Crates,  .  128,  134,  135,  136 

Cricket,  snowy  tree,  ....  97 
Crop-growing  in  orchards, 

52,    53 

Crops,  cover,  ....  75,  76,  77 
Crotches,  weak,  ...  45,  77 

Crown  gall, 34,  35,    98 

Crown  grafting,     ...  24 

Culls,  fruit 131,  136 

Cultivation,   .  51,  52,  53,  54,    58 

(See  also  under  Apple  ;  Pear ;  etc.) 

Curculio,    •    •  84,  92,  96,  108,  109 

Cut-worms,  climbing,    .  42,    43 

B 

Date  palm, 119 

Dead  wood, 48 

Diseases. 

(See  Spraying ;  Apple  ;  Pear  ;  etc.) 


(141) 


142 


ORCHARD    BOOK 


PACK 

Double-staking 31,32 

Drainage,  frost  and  water, 

11,14 
Drainage,  tile,   .   .   11,14,77,78 

Drop,  June 57 

Dust  spraying,    .   .  .65 

Dwarf  pear,     .   .    .  112,  113,  114 
Dwarfing  trees,  .   .  70,  71 

£ 
Emulsion,  kerosene,  .   .63,    64 

F 
"  Facing,"  ....    132,  133,  134 

Fall  setting, 14 

Fertilization,  blossom,  .  16,    17 
Fertilization,  soil, 

17,  35,  54,  55,  56,    58 

Fig, 119,  120 

Filbert 117 

"Filler"  trees, 30 

Fire  blight, 86,  105 

Frost  alarm,  automatic,  .   .    79 
Frost-crack,  ...           ...    98 

Frost  drainage,    ....   il,    18 

Frost  injury,  .  77,  78,  79,  96,    98 

Fruit-bark  beetle 96 

Fruit -bearing,  premature, 

43,    44 

Fruit  budding,  picking,  va- 
rieties, etc. 

(See  under  Budding;  Picking;  etc.) 

Fruit-fly,  cherry, 92 

Fruit-growers'  exchanges,   140 
Fungicides.     (See  Spraying. ) 
Fungous  diseases. 
(See  Spraying;  Apple;  Pear;  etc.) 

G 

Galls,  crown  and  root,  34, 35,    98 
Girdled  trees,  how  to  avoid, 

77,78,    79 
Girdled  trees,  saving,    .  24,    58 

Gouger,  plum, 109 

Grading  fruit,  ....  131  to  136 
Grafting,  .    .       ....  19  to   28 

Grafting  wax 23 

Grease,  axle 78 

Ground,  preparation  of,  .   .    17 

Guava, 120 

Gum, 80,  91,  98,  110 

K 

Harrowing, 52,  53,    58 

Hazelnut, 117 

Head,  advantages  of  low, 

40,  44,    48 


PAGE 
Head,  forming  the, 

38,39,40,41.44 

Header,  barrel 133 

Heeling-in  trees 14,  15 

Help  problem,  the 13 

Hellebore 104 

Hexagon  planting  system,    33 

Hickory  nut 117 

High  ground,  importance 
of,  .   .  ...  .11 

Insecticides.     (See  Spraying.) 
Insects. 

(See  Spraying ;  Apples  ;  Pears  ;  etc. ) 
Irrigation,      54 

J 

June  bug 93 

June  drop, 57 

K 

Kainit, 55,  103 

Kaki, 122 

Kegs  for  pears 136 

Kerosene  emulsion,  .  .  63,  64 
Knot,  black, 93,  109 

I/ 

Isabel,  tree,     42,    44 

Ladders,    .  123,125,  126,  127,  128 

Ladybirds, 73 

Lead,  arsenate  of,  .  .  .  62,  63 
Leaf-blight  or  spot. 

93,  104,  105,  110 

Leaf-curl,  peach, 97 

Leaf  mite  or  blister,  pear,  .  103 
Leaf  roller,  etc.,  ....  85,  92 
Lemon, 120 

Lice.     (See  Aphis.) 

Lice,  scale,      67  to    74 

Lime, 120 

Lime-sulphur  mixture, 

63,  68,  69,  70,  73,  74,     80 

"Little  peach," 98 

"  Little  Turk," 109 

Location  of  the  orchard, 

11,  12,  13,    14 

Loquat, 120 

M 

Maggot,  apple, 83 

Maggot,  cherry, 92 

Mango, 120 

Map  of  orchard,  ...  17,  42 
Marketing  fruit,  .  .  137  to  140 

Marking  packages 133 

May  beetle, 93 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Medlar, 120 

Mice  injury 77,  78,  79 

Midge -103 

Mildew 85,  93 

Mite,  blister, 103 

Moisture,conservation  of  ,51,77 
IViuioerry  trees,  .  .  94,  120,  121 

Mulching, 44,  53,    58 

Muzzles, -   ...     58 

w 

Nectarine, 121 

Nitrogen,  .  .  54,  55,  56,  76 
Nozzles,  spraying,  ....  61 
Nursery  trees,  selecting, 

16,  81,  91,  95,  102,  107 
Nut  trees,   .   .       •   •     115  to  118 
O 

Oats  in  orchards, 77 

Olive, 121 

Orange, 121,  122 

Orchard  requirements. 
(See    under   Setting  ;    Pruning; 
Spraying;  etc. ) 

Overbearing, 45 

Oyster-shell  scale,     .  71,  72,  103 

Packages,  fruit,  .  .  .  129  to  136 
Packing  fruit,  ....  129  to  136 
Packing  house,  ....  131,  140 
Paper,  for  packing, 

132,  133,  134,  136 

Paragon  chestnut,  115,  116,  117 
Paris  green,  ......  62,  65 

Pawpaw 122 

Peach,  The.  Culture;  Pests ; 
Pruning;  Spraying;  Va- 
rieties; etc.,     .   .   .    95  to  100 
Peaches,  grading,  .   .   .  135,  136 
Peaches,  packing,     .    .  135,  136 
Peaches,  picking,    126,  127,  128 
Pear,  The.    Culture  ;  Pests  ; 
Pruning;  Spraying;  Va- 
rieties ;  etc.,     .   .      101  to  106 
Pears,  dwarf,   .   .   .112,113,114 

Pears,  grading, 136 

Pears,  marketing,    .   .  139,  140 

Pears,  packing, 136 

Pears,  picking,  .   .  123, 124, 127 

Pecan 117, 118 

Persimmon, 122 

Phosphoric  Acid,  .  .  .  .  54,  56 
Picking  fruit 123  to  128 


PAGE 

Pink  rot 86 

Planning  the  orchard,  .  .  11 
Plan  of  orchard,  making  a, 

17,    42 

Planting, 29  to   33 

Plowing,  ....    52,  53,  58,    88 
Plum,  The.  Culture;  Pests; 
Pruning;  Spraying;  Va- 
rieties; etc.,     .   •   .107  to  110 

Plums,  packing, 136 

Plums,  picking,  .   .   .     126,  127 

Pockets,  plum, 110 

Pollination  of  blossoms, 

16,  17,    79 

Pomelo, 122 

Potash, 54,55,    56 

Powdery  mildew,  ...  85,    93 

Press,  barrel, 133 

Propagation,  19  to  28,  81,  91, 

95,  102, 107,  111,  113,  117,  118 
Protection,againstfrost,ll,  18 
Protection,  root,  .  •  •  .35,  36 
Protection,  soil.  (See  Cover  Crops) 

Protection,  water, 18 

Pruning,  later,  ....  45  to   50 

(See  also  under  Apple ;  Pear ;  etc. ) 
Pruning  newly-set  trees, 

37,  38,  39,  40,  41,  44 
Pruning,  root,  .   .  34,  40,  41,    49 

Pruning  tools, 46 

Psylla,  pear-tree, 104 

Pumps,  spray,  and  fittings, 

59,  60,  61,  65,  66,  73 

Q 
Quince.  The,   .  111.  112,  127,  136 

R 

Rabbit  injury,  ...  77,  78,  79 
Rape,  Essex,  in  orchards,  76 
Record  of  varieties,  .  17,  41,  42 

Red  spider, 116 

Ripening,  time  of,     .   .  123,  126 

Riperot, 85 

Root  gall, 34,    35 

Root  grafting, 24 

Root  protection,  .  .  35,  36 
Root  pruning,  .  .  34,  40,  41,  49 

Rose  bug, 93,    97 

Rosette,  peach, 98 

Rot,  collar, 86 

Rot,  fruit,   .   .  85,  86,  93,  97,  110 

Rust, 86 

Rye  in  orchards,    ...  76,    77 


144 


ORCHARD   BOOK 


s 

Saddle  grafting:, 24 

San  Jose  scale,  ....  67  to    74 

Scab, 86,  98,  105 

Scale  pests, 67  to   74 

Scion,  and  its  treatment,  .  21 
Scraping  tree  trunks,  72, 80,  88 
Scurfy  scale,  ....  72,  73,  104 
Seed-growing.  .  .  .  19,  20,  28 
Self  -  boiled  lime  -  sulphur 

mixture 63 

Self-sterility,    16,  17,  79,  82, 

92,  95,  102,  108 

Selling-  fruit, 139,  140 

Septuple  system  of  plant- 
ing,     33 

Setting- trees,    ....   29  to   36 

Shield  grafting-, 24 

Shot-hole  fungus,  .   .   .  93,  110 

Shy-bearing 45 

Side  grafting-, 25 

Slag,  Thomas  or  basic,    .   .    56 

Slug, 93,  104 

Smudges, -   .    79 

Soap,  whale-oil,  -  .  64,  70,  72 
Soils,  13, 82, 91,95,102,107,111,  113 
Sorting-  fruit,  ....  131  to  136 
Soy  beans  in  orchards,  .  .  76 

Splice  grafting-, 25 

Spraying-,    -   .       .          59  to   74 

(See  also  under  Apple;  Pear;  etc.) 
Spring- setting-,     ....  14 

Spurs,  fruit,  .   .   .    123,  124,  125 

Staking-board 31,    32 

Steam -cooking-  apparatus, 

69,    74 

Stems,  fruit,  .    124,  125,  126,  134 
Stenciling  packages,     .   .   .133 
Stock,   the,  and   its   treat- 
ment,     21 

Storage,  cold,    137,  138,  139,  140 

Strainers, 65,    66 

Stratification, '28 

Strawberries  in  orchards,  .  52 
Stringfellow  method,  .  40,  41 
Stub,  never  leave  a,  .  .  48,  49 

Subsoil, 13,    14 

Suckers 48,  49,    50 

Sulphur.       (Soo  Lime  sulphur.) 

Sun-scald,  77,  79,  91,  98,  103,  110 

Sun-scorch,  98 

Superphosphate, 56 


Tables,  packing,    .   .   .131,  134 

Tarletan,  red, 136 

Tent-caterpillar 85 

Terrapin  scale 73 

Thinning-  fruit,  ....  57,  58 
Tile  drainage,  .  .  11,  14,  77,  78 
Tillage,  .  .  .  51,  52,  53,  54,  58 

Tobacco  solution, 64 

Tongue  grafting, 25 

Tools,  pruning, 46 

Top  grafting, 25 

Transportation, 13 

Tree  cricket,  snowy,     ...    97 

Tree  label, 42,    44 

Tree  protectors,  .  .  .  .  79,  80 
Trees,  nursery,  selecting, 

16,  81,  91,  95,  102,  107 
Trees,  treatment  of. 

(See    under    Setting;    Pruning; 

Spraying ;   etc. ) 

Triangle  system  of  plant- 
ing,     33 

Turnips  in  orchards,    ...    76 

Twig  blight, 86,    97 

Twig-borer,  apple,     ....    83 

V 

Varieties,    different    fruit, 
16,  89,  90,  94,  100,  106,  110, 

112,  114,  119 

Varieties,  nut,  115,  116,  117,  118 
Varieties,  record  of,  17,  41,  42 

Vetch  cover  crop, 76 

Vinegar,      88 

W 

Walnuts, 115,  118 

Wash,  for  borers,    ....       80 

Water  drainage 11, 14 

Water  protection, 18 

Wax,  grafting, 2 

Weevil,  chestnut,  •  •  .  -  .116 
Whale-oil  soap  solution, 

64,  70,  72 

Whip-grafting, 25 

Whitewash, 88 

Windbreaks, 18,114 

Wood-veneer, 79 

Woolly  aphis,  ....  35,  85 
Wrapping  fruit,  .  .  .  133,  136 

Y 
Yellows,  peach,    ....  98,    99 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


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THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
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DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


JAN  13    ,933 

LIBRARY  USE 

AUG  13  1950 


814978 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


